The "profanity" of Greek sanctuaries? Defining the temenos as a space for divine-human interaction 600 BC-200 AD
Greek sanctuaries have attracted considerable interest within Classical scholarship for more than a century but mainly from the viewpoint of divine presence and its expression in the form of temples, statues and monuments. The project adopts a novel approach by focusing on the interaction between gods and humans from the human perspective. The aim is to provide a more diversified and comprehensive understanding of sanctuaries as both physical and cognitive entities, but also of the Greek notions of the sacred and the profane. The starting point is the Greek concept temenos (”that which has been cut off”), which referred to the space where the gods were worshipped but which humans also used and administered.
The project is based on an integrated analysis of texts, inscriptions, images and archaeological remains from 600 BC to 200 AD and has three objectives. 1) How sanctuaries were separated from the profane surroundings, investigated through a study of the term temenos in inscriptions and texts, and how the demarcation can be traced in the archaeological record. 2) A definition of human presence inside sanctuaries based on which space and structures were used only by men and if the arrangement of a temenos aimed at uniting or separating gods and humans. 3) How the establishment and use of a temenos relates to the Greek notions of the sacred both as given by the gods and as constructed by humans, and how human presence may have affected the sacredness of this space.
Final report
AIM AND DEVELOPMENT
The aim of the project has been to explore the ancient Greek concept ‘temenos’, one of the terms for sanctuary space, and how such spaces were used for the interaction between gods and humans. Greek gods were perceived as owning their temenos, while humans would visit to worship and also acted as caretakers and administrators of sanctuaries. Still, every visit to a temenos by a human being risked causing pollution and damage, as human life, especially the basic human needs, were incompatible with the purity necessary for the gods. How did the fact that Greek sanctuaries were set apart for gods, but visited and cared for by humans, influence how they were perceived, demarcated, planned and used?
The project has addressed three main objectives: 1) the use and meaning of the term temenos in texts and inscriptions, 2) human presence inside the temenos and interaction with the gods within the framework of food consumption, and 3) the relation between the perception and use of a temenos and ancient Greek notions of the sacred as both ‘given by gods’ and constructed by humans. The concept temenos has turned out to be even richer and more complex than expected, which is good but also challenging for the delimitation and focus of each study area.
IMPLEMENTATION
The project initially gathered a very substantial amount of empirical evidence (epigraphical, textual, archaeological and iconographical material), essential for fulfilling the research objectives. The richness of this material allows for its use also for future studies. The project has essentially been carried out according to the plan, although the Covid-19 pandemic and personal health issues unfortunately hindered international travel and collaboration to some degree, and has delayed the publication of the final results as a monograph. In the first phase, the inscriptions and literary sources attesting temenos were collected, analysed and contextualized to establish the use and meaning of the term, especially in relation to other terms for sacred space. Next, the multifaceted manner in which the Greeks used offerings of human food and the spatial imprint of these ritual actions in relation to animal sacrifice and human consumption of meat in sanctuaries have been explored based on archaeological, iconographical and written sources. The investigation of the notion of sacredness we are to ascribe to the temenos and its use has been ongoing and remains be concluded.
THE MOST SIGNIFICANT RESULTS
The project is the first to fully map, analyse and contextualize the term temenos in inscriptions and texts. This was a laborious undertaking, but the project’s conclusions are based on a totality of the written sources, contrary to previous scholars’ cherry picking of the evidence. I can point to reasons why and when the Greeks chose this concept and what they wanted to convey. The notion of a physical, concrete space implied by temenos, contrary to other terms for sanctuaries, especially hieron, indicates an intricate idea of space as both physically and cognitively perceived in the Greek mindset. An emphasis of the degree of sacredness in the uses of this space can be linked to the choice of terminology as well. These are relevant conclusions for understanding the material remains of Greek sanctuaries and also provide insights into the perception and demarcation of space within ancient Greek culture at large.
The second part of the project has explored temenos as a space for human preparation and consumption of food and the handling of garbage, especially in relation to rituals where the gods were offered food on cult tables or invited as guests to ritual meals. The investigation of where humans ate and the spatial imprint of rituals involving food offerings point to a complex spectrum of actions to negotiate the distinctions between gods and humans. A detailed study of the iconography of foods on tables, the presence and use of physical tables inside sanctuaries and attestations in written sources demonstrate that while both gods and humans “consume” food in the temenos, there is always a spatial limit to the closeness which created. Gods and humans never eat together in ritual. Even when humans eat inside a temple, where the god receives food offerings on a table in front of the cult statue, the human meal is marked as spatially distinct from the space of the god by a fence, drapery or wall with a door. Food consumption in the temenos can create a connection between gods and humans, but never the commensality that was perceived to have characterized divine-human interaction in the mythical past.
Establishing a temenos to house the god and his belongings was always more of a human than a divine concern. To institute a cult, a statue or an altar were needed, and the installation of these features was essential and required particular rituals, contrary to the establishment of a temenos, which meant a technical demarcation of an area. The concept temenos, both the use of the term and the use of its space, demonstrates how the Greek notions of sacredness worked on different levels. The terminology for sanctuary space was chosen consciously or subconsciously to convey the importance of the sacred in a particular context. As so often in Greek religion, the language displays and allows for an astonishing degree of variation and intricacy, which to some extent can be traced also in the archaeological record. Humans create temene as sacred spaces and establish a divine presence and divine cult, but the temenos can as well be filled with activities catering explicitly to humans, such as cooking and dining, and which are of little and no interest to the god, as long as these activities follow the divine norms of the particular sanctuary. Human presence did not make the temenos less sacred, but human discourse about the temenos could choose to bring out degrees of sacredness, stronger or weaker.
In conclusion, the project contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of a very common Greek religious concept, temenos, referred to in most works on Greek religion. The results are relevant for scholars working on sanctuaries both from an empirical and methodological point of view. The project further demonstrates the complexity of the Greek perception of the divine and the possibilities of polytheistic anthropomorphic religion, and how space is an important factor in the divine-human interaction. Finally, it also shows that the notions of what was sacred and profane in ancient Greek still need more work. The Greeks were not like us.
NEW RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The empirical material is extensive and rich, and has opened up collaboration potentials with other scholars, in particular with a focus on the use of ritual space in a wider context, for example, the worship of gods outside established sanctuaries, i.e. in domestic and public, non-sanctuary settings, and whether the notion of temenos is relevant here. The concept of entering and leaving sacred space, and the agency of the actual entrance for the visitors’ experience are of interest to explore as well.
The collected empirical evidence can be used for a range of other studies, in particular local expressions of Greek religion and chronological developments. To give one example, the Roman administrators of the Greek provinces do not always seem to have grasped the meaning of a temenos. Influenced by Latin terminology and the Roman perception of ritual space, they are struggling to find the right words and course of action when handling questions of taxing and disputes concerning land management in Greece, especially land owned by gods.
DISSEMINATION AND OUTPUT
The main results of the project are to be presented as a monograph: “Temenos. Exploring sacred space and divine-human interactions in ancient Greece”. The complexity of the topic suits a monographic treatment rather than in articles and therefore only select issues have been presented as papers. Among the output of the project is also the co-edited volume “Logistics in Greek sanctuaries”, which discusses the human experience of visiting Greek sanctuaries, including my study of accommodation for worshippers in sanctuaries.
The project has received a lot of attention internationally and I have been invited to present its aim and results at conferences, invited lectures and seminars at more than 25 venues in person or online (e.g. Athens, Berlin, Bryn Mawr, Chicago, Leiden, London, Montpellier, Oxford, Paris, Pisa, Toulouse). I have organised two workshops at Uppsala (2023 and 2024) and been part of the initiation of an international research network on Greek sanctuaries, HIERON, which meets online every six weeks, at workshops and excursions to Greece. The project was also the reason I was awarded two fellowships, at SCAS, Uppsala, in fall 2023 and as a Visiting Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford, Trinity Term 2024 (postponed from 2022 due to health reasons).
The aim of the project has been to explore the ancient Greek concept ‘temenos’, one of the terms for sanctuary space, and how such spaces were used for the interaction between gods and humans. Greek gods were perceived as owning their temenos, while humans would visit to worship and also acted as caretakers and administrators of sanctuaries. Still, every visit to a temenos by a human being risked causing pollution and damage, as human life, especially the basic human needs, were incompatible with the purity necessary for the gods. How did the fact that Greek sanctuaries were set apart for gods, but visited and cared for by humans, influence how they were perceived, demarcated, planned and used?
The project has addressed three main objectives: 1) the use and meaning of the term temenos in texts and inscriptions, 2) human presence inside the temenos and interaction with the gods within the framework of food consumption, and 3) the relation between the perception and use of a temenos and ancient Greek notions of the sacred as both ‘given by gods’ and constructed by humans. The concept temenos has turned out to be even richer and more complex than expected, which is good but also challenging for the delimitation and focus of each study area.
IMPLEMENTATION
The project initially gathered a very substantial amount of empirical evidence (epigraphical, textual, archaeological and iconographical material), essential for fulfilling the research objectives. The richness of this material allows for its use also for future studies. The project has essentially been carried out according to the plan, although the Covid-19 pandemic and personal health issues unfortunately hindered international travel and collaboration to some degree, and has delayed the publication of the final results as a monograph. In the first phase, the inscriptions and literary sources attesting temenos were collected, analysed and contextualized to establish the use and meaning of the term, especially in relation to other terms for sacred space. Next, the multifaceted manner in which the Greeks used offerings of human food and the spatial imprint of these ritual actions in relation to animal sacrifice and human consumption of meat in sanctuaries have been explored based on archaeological, iconographical and written sources. The investigation of the notion of sacredness we are to ascribe to the temenos and its use has been ongoing and remains be concluded.
THE MOST SIGNIFICANT RESULTS
The project is the first to fully map, analyse and contextualize the term temenos in inscriptions and texts. This was a laborious undertaking, but the project’s conclusions are based on a totality of the written sources, contrary to previous scholars’ cherry picking of the evidence. I can point to reasons why and when the Greeks chose this concept and what they wanted to convey. The notion of a physical, concrete space implied by temenos, contrary to other terms for sanctuaries, especially hieron, indicates an intricate idea of space as both physically and cognitively perceived in the Greek mindset. An emphasis of the degree of sacredness in the uses of this space can be linked to the choice of terminology as well. These are relevant conclusions for understanding the material remains of Greek sanctuaries and also provide insights into the perception and demarcation of space within ancient Greek culture at large.
The second part of the project has explored temenos as a space for human preparation and consumption of food and the handling of garbage, especially in relation to rituals where the gods were offered food on cult tables or invited as guests to ritual meals. The investigation of where humans ate and the spatial imprint of rituals involving food offerings point to a complex spectrum of actions to negotiate the distinctions between gods and humans. A detailed study of the iconography of foods on tables, the presence and use of physical tables inside sanctuaries and attestations in written sources demonstrate that while both gods and humans “consume” food in the temenos, there is always a spatial limit to the closeness which created. Gods and humans never eat together in ritual. Even when humans eat inside a temple, where the god receives food offerings on a table in front of the cult statue, the human meal is marked as spatially distinct from the space of the god by a fence, drapery or wall with a door. Food consumption in the temenos can create a connection between gods and humans, but never the commensality that was perceived to have characterized divine-human interaction in the mythical past.
Establishing a temenos to house the god and his belongings was always more of a human than a divine concern. To institute a cult, a statue or an altar were needed, and the installation of these features was essential and required particular rituals, contrary to the establishment of a temenos, which meant a technical demarcation of an area. The concept temenos, both the use of the term and the use of its space, demonstrates how the Greek notions of sacredness worked on different levels. The terminology for sanctuary space was chosen consciously or subconsciously to convey the importance of the sacred in a particular context. As so often in Greek religion, the language displays and allows for an astonishing degree of variation and intricacy, which to some extent can be traced also in the archaeological record. Humans create temene as sacred spaces and establish a divine presence and divine cult, but the temenos can as well be filled with activities catering explicitly to humans, such as cooking and dining, and which are of little and no interest to the god, as long as these activities follow the divine norms of the particular sanctuary. Human presence did not make the temenos less sacred, but human discourse about the temenos could choose to bring out degrees of sacredness, stronger or weaker.
In conclusion, the project contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of a very common Greek religious concept, temenos, referred to in most works on Greek religion. The results are relevant for scholars working on sanctuaries both from an empirical and methodological point of view. The project further demonstrates the complexity of the Greek perception of the divine and the possibilities of polytheistic anthropomorphic religion, and how space is an important factor in the divine-human interaction. Finally, it also shows that the notions of what was sacred and profane in ancient Greek still need more work. The Greeks were not like us.
NEW RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The empirical material is extensive and rich, and has opened up collaboration potentials with other scholars, in particular with a focus on the use of ritual space in a wider context, for example, the worship of gods outside established sanctuaries, i.e. in domestic and public, non-sanctuary settings, and whether the notion of temenos is relevant here. The concept of entering and leaving sacred space, and the agency of the actual entrance for the visitors’ experience are of interest to explore as well.
The collected empirical evidence can be used for a range of other studies, in particular local expressions of Greek religion and chronological developments. To give one example, the Roman administrators of the Greek provinces do not always seem to have grasped the meaning of a temenos. Influenced by Latin terminology and the Roman perception of ritual space, they are struggling to find the right words and course of action when handling questions of taxing and disputes concerning land management in Greece, especially land owned by gods.
DISSEMINATION AND OUTPUT
The main results of the project are to be presented as a monograph: “Temenos. Exploring sacred space and divine-human interactions in ancient Greece”. The complexity of the topic suits a monographic treatment rather than in articles and therefore only select issues have been presented as papers. Among the output of the project is also the co-edited volume “Logistics in Greek sanctuaries”, which discusses the human experience of visiting Greek sanctuaries, including my study of accommodation for worshippers in sanctuaries.
The project has received a lot of attention internationally and I have been invited to present its aim and results at conferences, invited lectures and seminars at more than 25 venues in person or online (e.g. Athens, Berlin, Bryn Mawr, Chicago, Leiden, London, Montpellier, Oxford, Paris, Pisa, Toulouse). I have organised two workshops at Uppsala (2023 and 2024) and been part of the initiation of an international research network on Greek sanctuaries, HIERON, which meets online every six weeks, at workshops and excursions to Greece. The project was also the reason I was awarded two fellowships, at SCAS, Uppsala, in fall 2023 and as a Visiting Fellow at All Souls College, Oxford, Trinity Term 2024 (postponed from 2022 due to health reasons).