High-Level Proficiency in Second Language Use
The programme intends to investigate the cognitive/psychological and social conditions that lead to outstanding proficiency levels in a second language, as well as which aspects of the target language's discourse structure, grammar, lexicon and phonology still cause problems at these levels. The primary goal of the programme is to contribute to theory development in the area of second language acquisition, but in many cases the knowledge generated also has clear applications in language teaching and in other types of linguistic training as well as in various societal enterprises where high- level linguistic performance is required.
Today, three areas can be identified where research about advanced levels of language proficiency is in a phase of rapid theoretical development. Several of the researchers of the programme have contributed significantly to this development.
Research in the first area is based on the so called critical period hypothesis for language learning. Among the questions that have been most salient here are 1) what ultimate attainment level can be achieve given the age at which language acquisition started, 2) whether second language learners exist who started their acquisition after puberty but still attained a native-like level of proficiency, and 3) whether learners who started their acquisition in childhood uniformly reach an ultimate level of proficiency that is parallel to that of native speakers.
The second area concerns research on the systematic structural development of the second language - or so-called developmental sequences. Questions here comprise the intertwined development of grammar, lexicon and discourse during the final phases of advanced second language acquisition, i.e. how learners at this level manage or control the structural resources of the target language. Within this area a methodological break through has been possible through the development of computerised corpora over recent years.
The third area comprises research about the development of youth varieties in urban multilingual environments. What is of particular interest here is the hypothesis that these varieties are shaped the way they are for many different intertwined reasons, not primarily because some of their speakers are second language users. Much of the research undertaken in this field focuseson how adolescents' identification and positioning in the social context are both reflected in and shaped by the social/linguistic interaction they are involved in.
The first two of these areas are presently well-integrated in second language theory development, while the third one has still not had the influence that its potential could allow. The programme aims at an integrated view on advanced second language use where detailed knowledge along psychological, linguistic structural and social dimensions is uniquely allowed to inform the specific investigations that will be carried out in each part of the programme.
The programme comprises nine individual projects. The first project deals with the role of language learning aptitude for high-level second language proficiency. This research expands on earlier results by programme researchers which imply that aptitude is a decisive factor in explaining variation in ultimate attainment among older learners, but, unexpectedly, also that it plays a role among younger learners.
The second project investigates the cognitive and social conditions of a special group of advanced second language users, polyglots. In this context, polyglots are defined as language learners who have acquired at least five languages after puberty and attained an advanced level in each of them. In current research this group has only been given attention as a matter of curiosity in spite of its potential in increasing our understanding for how aptitude and motivation interact as well as the specific conditions that allow maintenance of linguistic proficiency.
The third project similarly investigates a group of second language users and a phenomenon that has so far not been attended to in research, i.e. operators with a presumed "flawless" accent in international call centres in the context of Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) operations. Such call centres are presently established in particular in South East Asia for English speaking customers but also in the Baltic countries for Scandinavian customers. Research questions include the extent to which call centre staff (are expected to) use a native-like pronunciation, and in particular the sociolinguistic conditions relevant for the business.
Project number four investigates Swedish university students' receptive proficiency in the context of their participation in educational programmes conducted in English. The understanding of course texts among Swedish students studying biology and economy will be compared to how native English speaking students understand the same texts. In this context, a specific issue that has not been dealt with in detail in earlier research will be investigated, namely the extent to which the receptive ability can be native-like while the productive ability has still not reached this level, something that is taken as a prerequisite in the actual educational context.
Projects five to seven all work with data from large computerised corpora. Project five investigates in detail a number of phenomena which in earlier research by programme researchers have manifested themselves as characteristic problems for advanced second language users. Such problems comprise the interaction between traditional grammatical phenomena and discourse, discourse organisation in speech planning and expressions for modality. The project investigates Swedish university students' advanced second language use of French and Spanish.
The sixth project studies second language use of formulaic structures, a phenomenon that is one of major stumbling-blocks even at, or specifically at, advanced levels of proficiency. Among other things the project investigates which role informal learning contexts as compared to formal classroom contexts play for the acquisition of formulaic structures. This project investigates Swedish university students' advanced second language use of English, French, and Spanish.
Project seven investigates how the lexicon develops among second language learners, in particular at advanced levels. The project aims at characterising lexical differences between advanced second language users and native speakers in both quantitative and qualitative terms. It works with Swedish university students' advanced second language use of French and Italian.
Project eight concerns attitudes to and opinions about youth varieties of Swedish in multilingual environments. In particular investigations will deal with which (types of) varieties different groups of speakers distinguish, what linguistic features are perceived as belonging to these varieties, and what attitudes are linked to the varying usages. Both speakers who use these varieties themselves and speakers who have had more or less contact experience with them will be investigated.
Project nine finally investigates the social conditions that are relevant for language use among multilingual adolescents in different socio-cultural contexts, urban, suburban and rural. Research questions concern how the adolescents' experiences from different areas such as the school, peer group, leisure time industry, and internet motivate them in their acquisition of Swedish and other languages. A particular focus will be on how trans-national and post-national ideologies, which may be different in the actual adolescents' experiences than in those of monolingual Swedish adolescents, influence their language acquisition and language use. These issues will be interpreted, among other things, in an ethnic integration perspective.
The 'High-level Proficiency in Second Language Use' program: final report
Background
The research program 'High-level Proficiency in Second Language Use' was granted RJ funding for two periods: the years 2006-09 and 2010-12. The program has investigated advanced, near-native, and even nativelike levels of proficiency in second language (L2) use on a broad scale. It was initiated at a point in time when later stages of acquisition and the characteristics of more full-blown L2 use in different contexts had received little theoretical attention, a gap that our program has endeavored to fill.
Several categories of high-proficient L2 users have participated in our research: immigrants who have successfully acquired the language of their host community; their children for whom the host language is either an early additional L2 or a L1 developed simultaneously with the heritage language; proficient users of a L2 who do not live in the target community, i.e. Swedish university students studying in English; advanced university students of foreign languages; polyglots; and staff in international call centers.
The program's division into research projects across the funding periods is shown below (project leaders In parenthesis):
2006-09
1. ´The role of age of acquisition and language learning aptitude for high-level L2 proficiency' (Niclas Abrahamsson)
2. 'The Polyglot' (Kenneth Hyltenstam)
3. 'Linguistic outsourcing and nativelike performance in international call centres ' (Kingsley Bolton)
4. 'Receptive proficiency in high-level second language users' (Philip Shaw)
5. 'The last stages in second language acquisition: morpho-syntax and discourse' (Inge Bartning)
6. 'Formulaic structures in relation to communicative proficiency in the advanced learner's L2 usage' (Britt Erman)
7. 'Aspects of the advanced L2 learner's lexicon' (Camilla Bardel)
8. 'Sociolinguistic awareness and language attitudes in multilingual contexts' (Kari Fraurud)
9. 'The globalized language user: language learning and use in national, transnational and postnational contexts' (Charlotte Haglund; Christopher Stroud)
2010-12
A. 'Non-perceivable non-nativelikeness in a second language: effects of age of onset, or of bilingualism?' (Niclas Abrahamsson)
B. 'Listening comprehension of high-level second language users' (Philip Shaw)
C. 'Idiomaticity and discourse organization in high-proficient L2 use' (Lars Fant)
D. 'Aspects of the advanced L2 learner's lexicon (2)' (Camilla Bardel)
E. 'Sociolinguistic awareness and language attitudes in multilingual contexts (2)' (Kari Fraurud)
Our research has addressed issues concerned with language structure in both production and perception (grammar, lexicon, pragmatics, discourse, and their interfaces), receptive and interaction skills, and factors influencing level of proficiency (individual and contextual factors). One overriding question has been how to characterize high-level L2 users in relation to native speakers, although the dividing line between L1 and L2 use can be fuzzy at times.
The L2s involved are Swedish, English, French, Spanish and Italian.
Results
Throughout, our results confirm or point to levels of L2 proficiency that are often functionally on a par with native speaker proficiency, and many of our participants pass for native speakers when using their L2. This is something that should be acknowledged and remembered in the following where we specify the characteristic L2 features that remain at this very advanced level. (For references in the text, see the publication list.)
Language structure. In the studies addressing language structure, much focus was put on the L2 users' level of idiomaticity, as measured in terms of multi-word units (MWU). High-proficient L2 users scored clearly lower than native controls with regard to lexical MWUs - in particular collocations ('make a decision', 'ask a question') - whereas they scored within the native-speaker range in their use of discursive MWUs ('as a matter of fact'), or conversational routines ('thanks a lot') (Forsberg & Fant 2010, Erman et al 2014). In a study on Swedish long-time residents in a target language community, L2 English users stood out as more nativelike than L2 French and Spanish users, length of stay being equal. This probably reflects a difference both in linguistic and cultural distance and in age of onset. MWU command stood out as perhaps the most forceful quality of L2 nativelikeness (Erman et al 2014, Forsberg Lundell et al 2014).
Regarding grammar, certain features are found to not be fully acquired even at the most advanced stage of learning (Bartning et al 2009, Forsberg Lundell et al 2013). With respect to morpho-syntactic command, MWU use, and vocabulary richness, even very high-proficient L2 users do not reach native levels, whereas their fluency and command of information structure are more often near-native or even nativelike. Thus, nativelike performance can be found among many L2 users in specific domains, but not across the board (Bartning et al 2012b; Forsberg Lundell & Bartning ftc; Forsberg Lundell et al 2014).
In studies on vocabulary, a new methodology, refining research approaches based on word frequencies, allowed for a clear discrimination between the advanced learners and native speakers. However a high-proficient L2 learner may well be nativelike in certain aspects of the lexicon (Bardel et al 2012). In terms of cross-linguistic influences in lexis, meaning-based transfer was found to prevail among advanced learners, whereas intermediate learners produced more formal-based transfer (Lindqvist 2010).
For pragmatic competence, it was shown that with regard to their repertoire of discourse markers, even very advanced L2 users did not reach native levels (Fant & Hancock 2014). Furthermore, in formulating pragmatic acts such as requests, high-proficient L2 users employed a wider and less idiomatic range of strategies than did the native controls (Forsberg Lundell & Erman 2012).
Receptive and interaction skills. Regarding receptive skills, as much as about 30% of Swedish university students were found to score within the native-speaker range on standardized tests of English listening and reading comprehension. For another 40%, scores in the native-speaker range were only possible if the subjects were given more time, and a substantial minority (30%) could not attain this level regardless of allotted time. Interestingly, however, the subjects scored equally well on listening and on reading (McMillion & Shaw ftc, Me?ek 2013).
Furthermore, even when the comprehension scores were equal, the Swedish L2 users turned out to have smaller vocabularies and longer reaction times than the native controls. This is in line with general findings that near-native L2 users often score below native levels on specific linguistic tests. Nevertheless, there was evidence regarding reading that the more skilled L2 readers of English had automatized word-recognition in a similar way to L1 readers (Shaw & Mc Million 2011). A few studies have addressed interaction skills. On a task involving interaction in a negotiation situation, even very proficient Swedish users of L2 Spanish manifested clear difficulties in aligning with socio-pragmatic patterns of the target community, Chile (Fant et al 2013).
In studies on international call centers, whose staff may be expected to pass as native speakers, in practice it turned out that the discursive, pragmatic and strategic skills involved in handling customer enquiries and offering solutions as efficiently and as quickly as possible were more significant for success than an entirely nativelike accent (Bolton 2013).
Individual influencing factors. Questions regarding the L2 learners' possibilities of attaining nativelikeness have been a major concern in the program. Among the predicting factors for ultimate attainment, measured through a battery of tests, the age of onset of language acquisition (AO) was found to be the strongest, at least in the case of participants who began to acquire their Swedish at 1-15 years of age. In the case of participants with an AO of 16-30, this factor ceased to be relevant; instead language learning aptitude was the main predictor for this group, and the second strongest predictor for the younger group. Only one third of the subjects with an AO of 1-15 had nativelike results both on the grammaticality judgment and the phonetic measures, and no subject with an AO beyond 13 performed in a nativelike manner. This lends support to the view that an entirely nativelike attainment is not possible for late learners (Abrahamsson 2012).
In a study involving an additional group of subjects, viz. international adoptees, it was shown that losing one's L1 is not an advantageous, let alone necessary, condition for attaining full nativelike proficiency in a language. The hypothesis that bilingualism per se could be a predicting factor for ultimate attainment was rejected; instead it was found that in most cases, AO alone can predict and explain the attainment of native vs. near-native proficiency, regardless of whether acquisition was monolingual or bilingual (Abrahamsson et al in prog; Bylund et al 2012, 2013).
In another study, results from language aptitude tests were seen to correlate significantly with a collocations test; moreover, both correlated significantly with two dimensions of a personality test, viz. 'cultural empathy' and 'open-mindedness' (Forsberg Lundell & Sandgren 2013).
The program's investigation of ten polyglots - highly proficient in at least six languages - showed high aptitude scores, focus on linguistic form, preference for explicit learning and average to high systemizing ability for each of the individuals. Empathization skills were more variable within the group. Results also showed a high general cognitive ability for the group as a whole as well as extremely strong motivation or drive, especially in terms of choice and executive motivation (Hyltenstam ftc).
Contextual influencing factors. A number of studies have addressed the question of differences between skills acquired inside and outside the target language community ('second' vs. 'foreign' language learning) and the distinction between 'instructed' and 'naturalistic' learning. Although the latter type definitely favors competencies such as idiomaticity, the picture is less clear regarding grammar (Erman et al 2014).
A multi-methodological folk linguistic study showed that young people differ considerably in their perception and construction of the linguistic variation in their environment. They focused on different dimensions of language variation such as ethnicity, social class, and language correctness, and identified speakers differently in ways related to their own social background and mono/multi-lingualism. They also differed with regard to how they delimit and distinguish various migration related varieties such as suburban slang and learner language as well as in how they identify and delimit the standard norm. Furthermore, some listeners, in a self-perception test, showed a gap between their sociolinguistic self-perception and their own speech production (Bijvoet & Fraurud 2010, 2012, 2013). The results raise questions as to the exact applicability of the distinction between L1 and high-proficient L2 use profiles.
The ways in which political, economic and labor market-related circumstances influence patterns of L2 use were addressed in studies that explore processes of marginalization or construction of Otherness that serve to position young people and their aspirations 'in a space' beyond attaining full access to 'native' or 'full' multilingual proficiencies. Being categorized as a 'foreigner' or 'immigrant' is highly formative in the profiles of multilingualism attained, or even attainable, rather than being an effect of cognitive parameters alone (Eliaso Magnusson & Stroud 2012, Stroud ftc).
Implications
The findings have various theoretical and practical implications. They have contributed significantly to:
- current theoretical understanding of age, aptitude, personality and cross-linguistic influence as factors in the development of high-level ultimate L2 proficiency
- insights into L2 comprehension at the most advanced level compared to L1 standards
- theories of L2 grammatical developmental stages, complementing earlier knowledge with a characterization of the most advanced stages, including the interface between grammar, discourse and MWUs
- frequency-based theories of L2 lexical development
- a comprehension of how individuals perceive and construct the monolingual/multilingual variation in their immediate sociolinguistic environment
- the wider societal influence on the construction of notions such as native and non-native speaker and how linguistic ethnography allows insights into language as a construction of Self
- initial systematic research in a new area: polyglots
- an understanding of the sociolinguistics of international call centers
These achievements have been possible due to partly innovative methodologies, specific to each of the sub-projects.
Apart from practical implications for language education at specific points, the program has contributed to a praxis-related general understanding of the demands of the L2 user's situated communication, including the perspective that nativelikeness in itself is not a realistic or desirable goal for second language teaching.
International contacts and dissemination From its inception, the program has maintained an intense dialogue with leading European and North American centers of research in L2 acquisition and use. Excellent scholars have been invited to comment on the ongoing research in the various projects, both at two conferences arranged in 2008 and 2013 for the program as a whole, and in connection with a number of workshops arranged by the specific projects.
The program has been made visible through the frequent and active participation of its researchers - often as plenary speakers - at the most important international and Scandinavian conferences in the field. Its researchers have also been frequently involved in dissemination activities outside academia with public lectures in various contexts, articles in the press and media presentations.
Publication strategies
The program's aim has been to achieve publications in as wide array of fora as possible. A considerable number of articles have been published in international prestigious journals, including a whole thematic issue of SSLA (34:2, 2012). Contributions have been made to a number of volumes at important publishers, and two anthologies directly addressing the program topic are currently being prepared.
Open access publishing has been made possible for all items in the publication list - either because this was allowed by the journal/publisher (with or without a one-year delay), or through the publishing of submitted next-to-final versions of articles at the DiVA portal.
Publications
ublication list
*work explicitly referred to in the final report
*Abrahamsson, Niclas. 2012. Age of onset and ultimate attainment of L2 phonetic and grammatical intuition. In: Niclas Abrahamsson & Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.), High-level L2 Acquisition, Learning and Use . Thematic issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34/2. 177–214.
Abrahamsson, Niclas. 2012. Critical period hypothesis (CPH). In: Peter Robinson (ed.), The Routledge Encyclopedia of Second Language Acquisition. London: Routledge. 146–151.
*Abrahamsson, Niclas & Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.) 2012. High-level L2 Acquisition, Learning and Use. Thematic issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34/2.
Abrahamsson, Niclas & Kenneth Hyltenstam. 2013. Mognadsbegränsningar och den kritiska perioden för andraspråksinlärning. In: Kenneth Hyltenstam & Inger Lindberg (eds.), Svenska som andraspråk – i forskning, undervisning och samhälle. Lund: Studentlitteratur. 221–257.
*Abrahamsson, Niclas, Emanuel Bylund, Kenneth Hyltenstam & Gunnar Norrman. In progr. Non-perceivable non-nativelike features in high-level second language use: Age of acquisition effects vs. effects of bilingualism.
Ädel, Annelie & Britt Erman. 2012. Recurrent combinations in academic writing by native and non-native speakers of English: A lexical bundles approach. English for Specific Purposes, 31. 81–92.
Bardel, Camilla. Forthc. The lexicon of advanced L2 learners. In: Kenneth Hyltenstam (ed.), High-level Proficiency in Second Language Use. Berlin/ New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bardel, Camilla. Forthc. The lexicon of advanced L2 learners. In: Hagen Peukert (ed.), Transfer effects in multilingual language development. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
*Bardel, Camilla, Anna Gudmundson & Christina Lindqvist. 2012. Aspects of lexical sophistication in advanced learners’ oral production: vocabulary acquisition and use in L2 French and Italian. In: Niclas Abrahamsson & Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.), High-level L2 Acquisition, Learning and Use . Thematic issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34/2. 269–290.
Bardel, Camilla & Christina Lindqvist. 2011. Developing a lexical profile for spoken French and Italian L2. The role of frequency, cognates and thematic vocabulary. In: Lea Roberts, Gabriele Pallotti & Camilla Bettoni. EUROSLA Yearbook, vol. 11. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 75–93.
Bardel, Camilla, Christina Lindqvist & Batia Laufer (eds.). 2013. L2 vocabulary acquisition, knowledge and use. New perspectives on assessment and corpus analysis. EUROSLA Monographs Series 2.
Bartning, Inge. 2009a. The advanced learner variety: ten years later. In: Florence Myles & Emmanuelle Labeau (eds.), The advanced learner varieties: The case of French. Berlin: Peter Lang. 11–40.
Bartning, Inge. 2009b. Et après le stade 6? Autour des derniers stades de l’acquisition du français L2. In: Petra Bernardini, Verner Egerland & Jonas Granfeldt (eds.), Mélanges plurilingues offerts à Suzanne Schlyter à l’occasion de son 65e anniversaire, Études romanes de Lund 85. Lund: Mediatryck. 29–51.
Bartning, Inge. 2010. High level proficiency in second language use. Morphosyntax and discourse. In: Marzena Watorek, Sandra Benazzo & Maya Hickman (eds.), Comparative perspectives on language acquisition: A tribute to Clive Perdue. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 170–187.
Bartning, Inge. 2012. Synthèse rétrospective et nouvelles perspectives développementales acquisitionnelles en français L2 à l’université de Stockholm. In: Christina Lindqvist & Camilla Bardel (eds.),The acquisition of French as a second language: New developmental perspectives. Special issue of Language, Interaction and Acquisition ( LIA), 3/1. 7–18.
Bartning, Inge. Forthc. Late morphosyntactic and discourse features in advanced/very advanced L2 French – a view towards the end state. In: Stéphanie Haberzettl (ed.) Processes and Outcomes. Explaining Achievement in Language Learning. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
*Bartning, Inge, Fanny Forsberg & Victorine Hancock. 2009. Resources and obstacles in very advanced L2 French: formulaic language, information structure and morphosyntax. EUROSLA Yearbook, vol. 9. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 185–211.
Bartning,Inge, Fanny Forsberg Lundell & Victorine Hancock. 2012a. Acquisition et usages aux niveaux très avancés des langues secondes : l’apport d’un modèle du français parlé. In: Sandrine Caddéo, Marie-Noëlle Roubaud, Magali Rouquier & Fredéric Sabio (eds.), Penser les langues. Hommage à Claire Blanche-Benveniste. Langue et langage. Aix-en-Provence: Presses Universitaires de Provence. 187–198.
*Bartning, Inge, Fanny Forsberg Lundell & Victorine Hancock. 2012b. On the role of contextual factors for morpho-syntactic stabilization in high level L2 French. In: Niclas Abrahamsson & Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.), High-level L2 Acquisition, Learning and Use. Thematic issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34/2. 243–267.
Bartning, Inge & Björn Hammarberg. 2007. The functions of a high-frequency collocation in native and learner discourse: the case of French c’est and Swedish det är. International Review of Applied Linguistics (IRAL), 45/1. 1–43.
Bartning, Inge & Victorine Hancock. Forthc. Morphosyntax and discourse at high levels of second language acquisition. In: Kenneth Hyltenstam (ed.), High-level Proficiency in Second Language Use. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Bartning, Inge, Maisa Martin & Ineke Vedder (eds.) 2010. Communicative Proficiency and linguistic development: intersections between SLA and language testing research. EUROSLA Monograph Series 1.
Bijvoet, Ellen & Kari Fraurud. 2006. ”Svenska med något utländskt”. Språkvård 2006/3. 4–10.
Bijvoet, Ellen & Kari Fraurud. 2008. Svenskan i dagens flerspråkiga storstadsmiljöer: en explorativ pilotstudie av unga stockholmares perceptioner av variation och varieteter. Nordisk tidskrift for andrespråksforskning (Nordand), 3/ 2. 7–38.
*Bijvoet, Ellen & Kari Fraurud. 2010. Rinkeby Swedish in the mind of the beholder. Studying listener perceptions of language variation in multilingual Stockholm. In: Pia Quist & Bente Ailin Svendsen (eds.), Multilingual Urban Scandinavia. New Linguistic Practices. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 170–188.
Bijvoet, Ellen & Kari Fraurud. 2011. Language variation and varieties in contemporary multilingual Stockholm: an exploratory pilot study of young peoples’ perceptions. In: Roger Källström & Inger Lindberg (eds.), Young urban Swedish. Variation and change in multilingual settings . Gothenburg: University of Gothenburg. 1–34. [open access: http://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/26570/1/gupea_2077_26570_1.pdf]
*Bijvoet, Ellen & Kari Fraurud. 2012. Studying high-level (L1-L2) language development and use among young people in multilingual Stockholm: The role of perceptions of ambient sociolinguistic variation. In: Niclas Abrahamsson & Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.), High-level L2 Acquisition, Learning and Use. Thematic issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34/2. 291–319.
*Bijvoet, Ellen & Kari Fraurud. 2013. ”Rinkebysvenska” och andra konstruktioner av språklig variation i dagens flerspråkiga Sverige. In: Kenneth Hyltenstam & Inger Lindberg (eds.), Svenska som andraspråk – i forskning, undervisning och samhälle. Lund: Studentlitteratur. 369–396.
Bolton, Kingsley. 2008. English in Asia, Asian Englishes, and the issue of proficiency. English Today, 94. 3–12.
Bolton, Kingsley. 2010. ‘Thank you for calling’: Asian Englishes and ‘native-like’ performance in Asian call centres. In: Andy Kirkpatrick (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of World Englishes. London: Routledge. 550–564.
*Bolton, Kingsley. 2013. World Englishes and international call centres. In: Kingsley Bolton (ed.), Symposium on World Englishes and International Call Centres. Special Issue of World Englishes, 32/4. 495–502.
Bolton, Kingsley (ed.). 2013. Symposium on World Englishes and International Call Centres. Special Issue of World Englishes, 32/4.
Bolton, Kingsley. Forthc. Linguistic outsourcing and native-like performance in international call centres: An overview. In: Kenneth Hyltenstam (ed.), High-level Proficiency in Second Language Use. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
*Bylund, Emanuel, Niclas Abrahamsson & Kenneth Hyltenstam. 2012. Does first language maintenance hamper nativelikeness in a second language. In: Niclas Abrahamsson & Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.), High-level L2 Acquisition, Learning and Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Thematic issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34/2. 215–241.
*Bylund, Emanuel, Kenneth Hyltenstam & Niclas Abrahamsson. 2013. Age of acquisition effects or effects of bilingualism in second language ultimate attainment? In: Gisela Granena & Michael Long (eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 69–101.
Eliaso Magnusson, Josefina. 2010, Språk som ingång till gemenskap. In: Åsa Wedin & Nigel Musk (eds.), Flerspråkighet, identitet och lärande. Lund: Studentlitteratur. 79–94.
*Eliaso Magnusson, Josefina & Christopher Stroud. 2012. High proficiency in markets of performance: A sociocultural approach to nativelikeness. In: Niclas Abrahamsson & Kenneth Hyltenstam (eds.), High-Level L2 Acquisition, Learning, and Use. Thematic issue of Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34/2. 321–345.
Erman, Britt. 2007. Cognitive processes as evidence of the idiom principle. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 12/1. 26–53.
Erman, Britt. 2008. Språkets fraseologi en svår nöt att knäcka. Tvärsnitt, 3(08). 38–40.
Erman, Britt. 2009a. Formulaic language from a learner perspective: What the learner needs to know. In: Roberta Corrigan, Edith A. Moravcsik, Hamid Quali & Kathleen M. Wheatley (eds.), Formulaic Language. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 27–50.
Erman, Britt. 2009b. Beyond the single word: Collocations in the writings of native speakers and first-term university students of English. In: Rhonwen Bowen, Mats Mobärj & Sölve Ohlander (eds.), Corpora and Discourse – and Stuff: Papers in Honour of Karin Aijmer. Göteborg: Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis. 23–37.
*Erman, Britt. 2014. There is no such thing as a free combination: A usage-based study of specific construals in adverb-adjective combinations. English Language and Linguistics (ELL), 18/1. 109–132.
*Erman, Britt, Annika Denke, Lars Fant & Fanny Forsberg Lundell. 2014. Nativelike expression in long-residency L2 users: A study of multiword structures in the speech of L2 English, French and Spanish. International Journal of Applied Linguistics (IJAL), 24/1. doi: 10.1111/ijal.12061.
Erman, Britt, Fanny Forsberg Lundell & Margareta Lewis. Forthc. Formulaic language: theory and methodologies – implications for second language acquisition and teaching. In: Kenneth Hyltenstam (ed.), High-level Proficiency in Second Language Use. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Erman, Britt & Margareta Lewis. 2013. Vocabulary in advanced L2 speech. In: Nils-Lennart Johannesson, Gunnel Melchers and Beyza Björkman (eds.), Of butterflies and birds, of dialects and genres, essays in honour of Philip Shaw. Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis, Stockholm Studies in English 104. 93–108.
Erman, Britt, Margareta Lewis & Lars Fant. 2013. Multiword structures in different materials and with different goals and methodologies. In: Jesús Romero-Trillo (ed.), Yearbook of Corpus Linguistics and Pragmatics 2013: New Domains and Methodologies. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. 77–103.
Fant, Lars. Forthc. 2014. El uso de entonces e igual en hablantes nativos y no nativos de español chileno. In: Gunnel Engwall & Lars Fant (eds.), Linguistica Romanica: contribuciones-contributions-contributi-contribuções. Stockholm: Stockholm University Press.
Fant, Lars. Forthc. What’s in the head of a Swedish long-time resident in Chile? Socio-cultural and linguistic competencies of Swedish cultural migrants in Chile. To appear in: Fanny Forsberg Lundell & Inge Bartning (eds.), Cultural Migrants. Multiple Perspectives on Optimal Second Language acquisition. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Fant, Lars & Victorine Hancock. Forthc. Nativelikeness in high-level second language use: The case of discourse markers. In: Kenneth Hyltenstam (ed.), High-level Proficiency in Second Language Use. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
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