Debate, silence, oblivion, and denial. Slavery and colonialism in newspapers, literature, and theatre 1750-1847 and how Swedish colonial experiences vanished from history
Slavery and colonialism were debated in Sweden in heated political terms from around 1750. Slavery was criticized, Swedish colonies were promoted, and news about e.g. the Haitian Revolution was in 1802-4 reported 276 times in one newspaper alone. Plays about slavery were staged at Stockholm theatres, travelogues and books constantly discussed the issues. The acquisition of Saint Barthélemy was a result of this colonization craze. The project aims to - for the first time - make an inventory of the material and analyse the debate.
The project's second part is an investigation of how the debate around the issues, and about Swedish involvement in slavery and colonialism, abated. The debate dried up already around 1800 and as the century progressed the issues vanish almost completely, leading up to today's amnesia. I have developed the project in the tension between my legal history work concerning Sw. Saint Barthélemy, and today's growing debate about racism, migration, and Sweden's role in the world.
The debate 1750-1847 (the year Sweden abolished slavery) has many points in common with the contemporary debate, and my research shows that it has had repercussions in the present. My current project has proven that there is international interest in Swedish colonial history. Sweden was in 2014 included in CARICOM's claim for reparations for slavery and colonialism. While this history may be forgotten in Sweden, it is not in the Caribbean. Denial and oblivion also have their history.
The project's second part is an investigation of how the debate around the issues, and about Swedish involvement in slavery and colonialism, abated. The debate dried up already around 1800 and as the century progressed the issues vanish almost completely, leading up to today's amnesia. I have developed the project in the tension between my legal history work concerning Sw. Saint Barthélemy, and today's growing debate about racism, migration, and Sweden's role in the world.
The debate 1750-1847 (the year Sweden abolished slavery) has many points in common with the contemporary debate, and my research shows that it has had repercussions in the present. My current project has proven that there is international interest in Swedish colonial history. Sweden was in 2014 included in CARICOM's claim for reparations for slavery and colonialism. While this history may be forgotten in Sweden, it is not in the Caribbean. Denial and oblivion also have their history.
Final report
Riksbankens Jubileumsfond Project P15-0156:1
Debate, silence, oblivion, and denial. Slavery and colonialism in newspapers, literature, and theatre 1750–1847
–Purpose, project development, implementation–
The project’s principal aim was to investigate the debate about colonialism and slavery in Sweden during the period 1750–1847. The overall aim was broken down into several areas of investigation (see examples below). After an initial survey of the debate (given account for in publication 12) one of the main realisations was that the conditions on the Swedish colony of Saint Barthélemy (1784–1878) needed to be included in the overall investigation. The analysis of printing, newspapers and issues of freedom of expression and the press in the Swedish Caribbean became one of the areas of investigation (publications 7, 11). Another conclusion was that to understand the debate and especially why Swedish colonial experiences vanished from the debate in the early nineteenth century it was necessary to understand the governance of the colony and the effects of the transfer of ownership of the Swedish colony from the state to the crown (see third result).
–The three most important results–
I only single out three areas here where the project’s contributions to the international research front are most obvious.
One example of how colonialism and slavery were present in public discourse is theatre. There were a large number of slavery themed plays on Stockholm stages during the decades around the year 1800, including a drama set in the Swedish colony Saint Barthélemy. I show how both translated and localised plays, as well as original plays by Swedish authors (e.g. Hesselius, Lidner, Sparrschöld) grappled with representing colonialism and slavery on the stage (publication 5). There is a growing international field of slavery and theatre studies and my research is the first Swedish contribution to this area.
Another field in the project with direct connections to the research front is the investigation of the reporting from the Haitian revolution in newspapers and literature as well as the subsequent Swedish relations with the independent nation. There was an almost obsessive interest in Sweden for the Haitian events, and in the 1810s several Swedish expeditions tried to promote trade with the new nation notwithstanding the French blockade. My research results (publications 2, 6) concerning Swedish–Haitian relations confirm findings in the recent international historiography assigning worldwide political influence to the Haitian events as well as downplaying Haitian post-independence isolation.
A central project component was the investigation of how Swedish colonial amnesia in the present is related to Sweden’s actual colonial involvement. This amnesia is conditioned by a national self-image unblemished by slavery and colonial misdeeds. I have linked the contemporary silence concerning Swedish colonial history to how the interest in Swedish participation in slavery already waned in the nineteenth century. The lack of interest in Swedish colonialism can be traced back to Swedish politics during the early nineteenth century. I have analysed the colonial aspects of the crown prince and King Karl XIV Johan’s reign (1810/18–1844) and its far-going effects on how colonial issues were discussed (and not) in Swedish society and debate. The colony became the private property of the crown prince and later King Carl XIV Johan which diminished the control from e.g. the parliament (publications 9, 11, 13, forthcoming 14). These publications set Swedish Caribbean colonialism in a larger Atlantic framework (especially evident in publication 3) that ties into currents in the international historiography underlining colonial connections instead of the former focus on the colony-metropole relationship which is particularly evident in Swedish older research. In the context of memory studies my investigations into the history of the Swedish colonial archives now held in France argue that Swedish reluctance to recognise its colonial history is due to a double process of oblivion, a forgetfulness of both misdeeds as well as failure, as the colony never became durably profitable (publications 4, 8).
–New research questions–
Several of the project’s results have engendered new research questions. I will continue with my analysis of Swedish nineteenth century colonial politics and how the Swedish abolition of slavery was influenced by the international abolitionist movement, forthcoming publication 14 is a first attempt in this direction.
Some more specific questions that were treated during the project have already led to new research. The slavery theatre investigation which also surveyed other literary genres has led to the drafting of a publication that will trace some of the stories (e.g. the Yarico and Inkle tale) that crisscrossed the Atlantic during especially the eighteenth century. There are many Swedish instances of these stories, such as translations, adaptions, sources of inspiration for plays, etc., that merit further analysis.
The project is part of my longer engagement with Swedish colonial history and its reverberations in contemporary society. In the publication record, this is also evident in my forthcoming monograph (publication 1) which extensively discusses the issues covered in the project.
–International dimensions and dissemination–
I have during the project continually presented and discussed research and findings in international and national contexts, and my publications emanating from the project are mainly in English and French. I was for example in 2019 invited as a visiting scholar to the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, where I gave lectures concerning the project. I am a member of the comité scientifique of a French research group based at the Institut d’Histoire de la Révolution Française, Paris University (Panthéon Sorbonne) and the Université des Antilles. I have participated both as presenter and organiser of several panels in this context. I am a reference group member in my Danish colleague Gunvor Simonsen’s ERC project “In the Same Sea” concerning the colonial Danish West Indies, as well as doing peer reviews for journals and presses (including Oxford UP) and writing book reviews in e.g. Slavery & Abolition.
–Conference presentations and invited lectures concerning the project (selection)–
Several 2020 conferences and lectures where I was to present and discuss results from the project have been cancelled, at least two of the conferences will instead take place in 2021.
–2020– Race et sang dans les sources depuis le XVIIe siècle : le cas de la France et de ses colonies, École normale supérieure, Université Paris 1, Panthéon-Sorbonne.
–2019– Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University; Staging Slavery around 1800: Performances of Slavery and Race, Ghent University; Swedish History Conference [Svenska Historikermötet] Linnéuniversitetet, Växjö; Colonial Media Ecologies, Linköping University
–2018– Universidade do estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro
–2017– Shaking Up the World? Global Effects of Haitian Tremors: 1791, 2010, Aarhus University; Histoire des esclaves : nouvelles sources et nouveaux problèmes, Université de La Réunion, La Réunion; Association of Caribbean Historians’ yearly meeting, Tobago; Swedish History Conference [Svenska Historikermötet] Mittuniversitetet; Nordic conference in eighteenth-century studies: The Eighteenth Century. Past and Present, Uppsala University
–Public activities and popularisation (selection)–
I was consulted in the production of the new permanent exhibition at the Stockholm Royal Armoury [Livrustkammaren] which resulted in Swedish St. Barthélemy being included in the exhibition. I have held public lectures concerning elements of the project at e.g.: Vänersborgs museum; Centre International de Documentation et d’Information Haïtienne, Caribéenne et Afro-Canadienne (CIDIHCA), Montréal; Institute of Latin American Studies, Stockholm University
I have been interviewed concerning my historical work in several contexts, e.g. in Swedish National Radio (Sveriges Radio): Nov. 21, 2017, ”Vetenskapsradion Historia”, SR P1: http://sverigesradio.se/sida/avsnitt/ 980377?programid=407; ”Tänka mot strömmen” Oct. 17, 2018, SR P1, https://urplay.se/program/206669-bildningsbyran-tanka-mot-strommen-olaudah-equiano-vittne-mot-slavhandeln
Debate, silence, oblivion, and denial. Slavery and colonialism in newspapers, literature, and theatre 1750–1847
–Purpose, project development, implementation–
The project’s principal aim was to investigate the debate about colonialism and slavery in Sweden during the period 1750–1847. The overall aim was broken down into several areas of investigation (see examples below). After an initial survey of the debate (given account for in publication 12) one of the main realisations was that the conditions on the Swedish colony of Saint Barthélemy (1784–1878) needed to be included in the overall investigation. The analysis of printing, newspapers and issues of freedom of expression and the press in the Swedish Caribbean became one of the areas of investigation (publications 7, 11). Another conclusion was that to understand the debate and especially why Swedish colonial experiences vanished from the debate in the early nineteenth century it was necessary to understand the governance of the colony and the effects of the transfer of ownership of the Swedish colony from the state to the crown (see third result).
–The three most important results–
I only single out three areas here where the project’s contributions to the international research front are most obvious.
One example of how colonialism and slavery were present in public discourse is theatre. There were a large number of slavery themed plays on Stockholm stages during the decades around the year 1800, including a drama set in the Swedish colony Saint Barthélemy. I show how both translated and localised plays, as well as original plays by Swedish authors (e.g. Hesselius, Lidner, Sparrschöld) grappled with representing colonialism and slavery on the stage (publication 5). There is a growing international field of slavery and theatre studies and my research is the first Swedish contribution to this area.
Another field in the project with direct connections to the research front is the investigation of the reporting from the Haitian revolution in newspapers and literature as well as the subsequent Swedish relations with the independent nation. There was an almost obsessive interest in Sweden for the Haitian events, and in the 1810s several Swedish expeditions tried to promote trade with the new nation notwithstanding the French blockade. My research results (publications 2, 6) concerning Swedish–Haitian relations confirm findings in the recent international historiography assigning worldwide political influence to the Haitian events as well as downplaying Haitian post-independence isolation.
A central project component was the investigation of how Swedish colonial amnesia in the present is related to Sweden’s actual colonial involvement. This amnesia is conditioned by a national self-image unblemished by slavery and colonial misdeeds. I have linked the contemporary silence concerning Swedish colonial history to how the interest in Swedish participation in slavery already waned in the nineteenth century. The lack of interest in Swedish colonialism can be traced back to Swedish politics during the early nineteenth century. I have analysed the colonial aspects of the crown prince and King Karl XIV Johan’s reign (1810/18–1844) and its far-going effects on how colonial issues were discussed (and not) in Swedish society and debate. The colony became the private property of the crown prince and later King Carl XIV Johan which diminished the control from e.g. the parliament (publications 9, 11, 13, forthcoming 14). These publications set Swedish Caribbean colonialism in a larger Atlantic framework (especially evident in publication 3) that ties into currents in the international historiography underlining colonial connections instead of the former focus on the colony-metropole relationship which is particularly evident in Swedish older research. In the context of memory studies my investigations into the history of the Swedish colonial archives now held in France argue that Swedish reluctance to recognise its colonial history is due to a double process of oblivion, a forgetfulness of both misdeeds as well as failure, as the colony never became durably profitable (publications 4, 8).
–New research questions–
Several of the project’s results have engendered new research questions. I will continue with my analysis of Swedish nineteenth century colonial politics and how the Swedish abolition of slavery was influenced by the international abolitionist movement, forthcoming publication 14 is a first attempt in this direction.
Some more specific questions that were treated during the project have already led to new research. The slavery theatre investigation which also surveyed other literary genres has led to the drafting of a publication that will trace some of the stories (e.g. the Yarico and Inkle tale) that crisscrossed the Atlantic during especially the eighteenth century. There are many Swedish instances of these stories, such as translations, adaptions, sources of inspiration for plays, etc., that merit further analysis.
The project is part of my longer engagement with Swedish colonial history and its reverberations in contemporary society. In the publication record, this is also evident in my forthcoming monograph (publication 1) which extensively discusses the issues covered in the project.
–International dimensions and dissemination–
I have during the project continually presented and discussed research and findings in international and national contexts, and my publications emanating from the project are mainly in English and French. I was for example in 2019 invited as a visiting scholar to the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, where I gave lectures concerning the project. I am a member of the comité scientifique of a French research group based at the Institut d’Histoire de la Révolution Française, Paris University (Panthéon Sorbonne) and the Université des Antilles. I have participated both as presenter and organiser of several panels in this context. I am a reference group member in my Danish colleague Gunvor Simonsen’s ERC project “In the Same Sea” concerning the colonial Danish West Indies, as well as doing peer reviews for journals and presses (including Oxford UP) and writing book reviews in e.g. Slavery & Abolition.
–Conference presentations and invited lectures concerning the project (selection)–
Several 2020 conferences and lectures where I was to present and discuss results from the project have been cancelled, at least two of the conferences will instead take place in 2021.
–2020– Race et sang dans les sources depuis le XVIIe siècle : le cas de la France et de ses colonies, École normale supérieure, Université Paris 1, Panthéon-Sorbonne.
–2019– Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University; Staging Slavery around 1800: Performances of Slavery and Race, Ghent University; Swedish History Conference [Svenska Historikermötet] Linnéuniversitetet, Växjö; Colonial Media Ecologies, Linköping University
–2018– Universidade do estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro
–2017– Shaking Up the World? Global Effects of Haitian Tremors: 1791, 2010, Aarhus University; Histoire des esclaves : nouvelles sources et nouveaux problèmes, Université de La Réunion, La Réunion; Association of Caribbean Historians’ yearly meeting, Tobago; Swedish History Conference [Svenska Historikermötet] Mittuniversitetet; Nordic conference in eighteenth-century studies: The Eighteenth Century. Past and Present, Uppsala University
–Public activities and popularisation (selection)–
I was consulted in the production of the new permanent exhibition at the Stockholm Royal Armoury [Livrustkammaren] which resulted in Swedish St. Barthélemy being included in the exhibition. I have held public lectures concerning elements of the project at e.g.: Vänersborgs museum; Centre International de Documentation et d’Information Haïtienne, Caribéenne et Afro-Canadienne (CIDIHCA), Montréal; Institute of Latin American Studies, Stockholm University
I have been interviewed concerning my historical work in several contexts, e.g. in Swedish National Radio (Sveriges Radio): Nov. 21, 2017, ”Vetenskapsradion Historia”, SR P1: http://sverigesradio.se/sida/avsnitt/ 980377?programid=407; ”Tänka mot strömmen” Oct. 17, 2018, SR P1, https://urplay.se/program/206669-bildningsbyran-tanka-mot-strommen-olaudah-equiano-vittne-mot-slavhandeln