Civil society elites? Comparing elite composition, reproduction, integration and contestation in European civil societies
This research program brings together elite studies and civil society studies in order to develop the first systematic and cross-country comparative analysis of civil society elites. This is important because of the significant power inequalities that have been observed within and between civil society organizations and because certain civil society actors have gained significant access to exclusive arenas where societal decision-makers meet for formal and informal deliberations and policy-making. While these trends are frequently discussed they have not been systematically researched. Our focus on elites challenges conventional research on civil society as an arena for citizens’ mobilization and participation. The program moves beyond current elite studies by addressing an elite group previously not studied. Analyzing elites ‘within’ as well as ‘beyond’ civil society, we will study the composition of civil society elites, how they are reproduced, how they become integrated with other elite groups, and by whom, on what grounds and with what effects they are contested. Using an innovative combination of quantitative and qualitative methods we will examine what mechanisms and processes lead to elite consolidation or elite contestations across four European countries (Sweden, Italy, Poland and the UK) as well as on the EU level and the consequences of elites for the roles that civil society is expected to play.
Final report
Program purpose
This research program integrates elite and civil society research and launches the concept of civil society elite as a unique contribution to each field of research. The program is based on a comparison of civil society elites in different civil society regimes: Italy (Corporative), Poland (Post-Socialist), Sweden (Social-Democratic), and the UK (Liberal). It also studies civil society elites at the EU level and conducted the first comparative study of civil society elites in Europe.
The following research questions have guided our investigations: i) What characteristics, values and networks are associated with civil society elites? b) How and to what extent are civil society elites reproduced? c) To what extent and how do elite civil society groups interact with other elite groups? d) By whom, on what grounds and with what effects are civil society elites and the concentration of power in the sector challenged and questioned? In addition, we have investigated two cross-cutting research questions: e) What mechanisms and processes lead to elite consolidation or questioning of elites, and how can differences between countries and levels be explained and understood? f) What are the consequences of civil society elites for the roles that civil society is expected to have in society?
Program results
The program has been conducted in four different thematic studies. The COVID-19 pandemic caused essential changes in design and method selection, which limited the possibilities for fieldwork and participant observations. The pandemic also led to a shift from face-to-face to digital elite interviews. Despite the pandemic, the program has conducted five elite surveys, established biographical databases with about 1,000 leaders, and about 300 interviews with elites and actors who challenge them.
Thematic study 1 examined the composition of civil society elites. We have developed a unique method to investigate resource concentration among civil society organisations. The method has proven valuable in exposing hierarchies and thereby identifying elite organisations and the types of resources that underlie dominance in different countries. A key finding is that civil society elites are similar to other elite groups regarding social background factors (class, gender, education, age, ethnicity) but differ in that they are more ideologically progressive. We refer to this as a civil society ethos. This result questions established elite theory, which assumes elites consolidate their position and status rather than work for change.
Thematic study 2 investigated the reproduction of civil society elites, focusing on recruitment, legitimation, and leadership training. Our studies show that internal career paths dominate in countries with a corporatist structure and low degree of professionalisation (Italy, Sweden and Poland) but less so in countries with liberal regime affiliation and high professionalisation. In the former, elites are reproduced based on sector or organization-specific rules and resources, and in the latter, as other elite groups via socialisation in elite education and merits of successfully leading an organisation (regardless of the sector). However, our studies show that elite organisations similarly legitimise their leaders irrespective of regime affiliation or type of organisation. Elites are portrayed as charismatic leaders with unique expertise to represent, but less in terms of democratic legitimacy or similarity to the groups they represent. This illustrates that elite organisations act alike across contextual differences, which can be explained by the fact that they strive to have leaders who match those they will integrate and interact with, i.e. political and economic elites.
Thematic study 3 investigated elite integration and interaction between civil society elites and members of other elite groups. Studies show extensive mobility from business to civil society and associated elite positions. Mobility between civil society and the public sector occurred primarily when they worked closely together and shared views on a societal problem. Elite research mainly explains elite integration with common social and professional backgrounds, yet we show the importance of common values and ideological orientation in explaining patterns of elite integration. The studies also show that patterns of elite mobility depend on regime affiliation. In countries with a corporatist regime type (e.g. Italy), elite integration takes place mainly within society's ideologically supporting structures (pillars), but in liberal regime types (e.g. the UK), mobility occurs regardless of sector affiliation. Irrespective of the regime type, barriers to elite mobility are linked to loss of economic capital, perceptions of sector differences, and role and identity conflicts. These are compensated by economic and political elites' perception of civil society as a better place for societal influence than their present position for power and influence.
Thematic study 4 examined the challengers of civil society elites. We have studied how national leaders are challenged and on what grounds and further developed the program's design to include transnational networks and conservative counter-movements. Unlike other research, we show that civil society elites primarily encounter challenges and challengers from within their organisation. Challenges mainly regard leadership and organisational competition, not ideology. In countries rifted by political polarisation (Italy and Poland), we find that (conservative) governments however strive to replace existing leadership and reshape civil society. The state becomes a means to create 'their' civil society elite. This shows that the term civil society elite is multifaceted, as leaders of conservative movements often give the impression of being a challenger or underdog despite having extensive financial and political resources. Theoretically, this develops the understanding of civil society leaders as "counter-elite" and shows the need for further research on how political and economic elites use positions within civil society for economic and political power.
Program contributions
The research program contributes to theorising about the mechanisms that drive elitisation within European civil societies, and based on our comparative studies, we developed a theoretical model. National power structures and civil society regimes set the framework for internal models of organising and distribution of valuable resources within and outside national civil societies. In countries with a lower degree of professionalisation and a pillaristic and corporatist structure, we find more significant elements of intra-organizational elite reproduction and integration between civil society elites and a political elite. In liberal regimes with high professionalisation, the elite is reproduced similarly to other elite groups and integrated primarily with an economic elite.
These three mechanisms of elitisation (reproduction, integration, and challenges) contribute to shaping a civil society elite with specific national characteristics regarding its composition. The term ‘interaction effects’ indicates that mechanisms are closely interconnected and that elites actively influence them. This is done by controlling access to important positions of power, e.g. linked to recruitment and who gets opportunities to advance. We see this as an essential contribution to comparative civil society research. Professionalisation, pillarisation and polarisation have been studied before, but as individual change processes without seeing them as drivers of elitisation. We show that they jointly contribute to elitisation and can be part of explaining the composition of elites in European civil societies.
A core contribution is also the theoretical deepening of the concept of the civil society elite. The concept should primarily be understood in terms of a paradoxical position of power. Civil society elite power is based partly on representation and working for the good of others, but elites are also embedded into contexts with opportunities for extensive influence and personal gain. Theoretically, the position of a civil society elite, and its associated resources and legitimation practices, can be explained as a mix of Michel's theory of the Iron Law of Oligarchy and Mill's theory of a Power Elite.
In summary, our studies show an extensive concentration of resources and power within national civil societies and, thus, the relevance of the term civil society elite to understand them. Therefore, studies of "civil society elites" should continue to be included in comparative studies of elites and studies of a power elite. Our research moreover shows the need for continued theory and method development around civil society's internal power structures and the importance of social stratification for participation and advancement, but investigations into how populism and declining social trust affect the composition of civil society's power strata, relationships they have with grassroots and members, as well as with other elite groups. Further deepening is necessary to understand the democratic role that civil society can have in times of declining trust and autocratisation.
Dissemination of results
Participants have presented the program's investigations and results on many occasions. It mainly concerned presentations for researchers, politicians, and representatives from civil society. Our research has also attracted interest from international umbrella organisations at the European and global levels and has been reported in the international press. The program has led to further research projects on elites, for example, with funding from Formas, the Swedish Research Council and the European Research Council, to name a few.
This research program integrates elite and civil society research and launches the concept of civil society elite as a unique contribution to each field of research. The program is based on a comparison of civil society elites in different civil society regimes: Italy (Corporative), Poland (Post-Socialist), Sweden (Social-Democratic), and the UK (Liberal). It also studies civil society elites at the EU level and conducted the first comparative study of civil society elites in Europe.
The following research questions have guided our investigations: i) What characteristics, values and networks are associated with civil society elites? b) How and to what extent are civil society elites reproduced? c) To what extent and how do elite civil society groups interact with other elite groups? d) By whom, on what grounds and with what effects are civil society elites and the concentration of power in the sector challenged and questioned? In addition, we have investigated two cross-cutting research questions: e) What mechanisms and processes lead to elite consolidation or questioning of elites, and how can differences between countries and levels be explained and understood? f) What are the consequences of civil society elites for the roles that civil society is expected to have in society?
Program results
The program has been conducted in four different thematic studies. The COVID-19 pandemic caused essential changes in design and method selection, which limited the possibilities for fieldwork and participant observations. The pandemic also led to a shift from face-to-face to digital elite interviews. Despite the pandemic, the program has conducted five elite surveys, established biographical databases with about 1,000 leaders, and about 300 interviews with elites and actors who challenge them.
Thematic study 1 examined the composition of civil society elites. We have developed a unique method to investigate resource concentration among civil society organisations. The method has proven valuable in exposing hierarchies and thereby identifying elite organisations and the types of resources that underlie dominance in different countries. A key finding is that civil society elites are similar to other elite groups regarding social background factors (class, gender, education, age, ethnicity) but differ in that they are more ideologically progressive. We refer to this as a civil society ethos. This result questions established elite theory, which assumes elites consolidate their position and status rather than work for change.
Thematic study 2 investigated the reproduction of civil society elites, focusing on recruitment, legitimation, and leadership training. Our studies show that internal career paths dominate in countries with a corporatist structure and low degree of professionalisation (Italy, Sweden and Poland) but less so in countries with liberal regime affiliation and high professionalisation. In the former, elites are reproduced based on sector or organization-specific rules and resources, and in the latter, as other elite groups via socialisation in elite education and merits of successfully leading an organisation (regardless of the sector). However, our studies show that elite organisations similarly legitimise their leaders irrespective of regime affiliation or type of organisation. Elites are portrayed as charismatic leaders with unique expertise to represent, but less in terms of democratic legitimacy or similarity to the groups they represent. This illustrates that elite organisations act alike across contextual differences, which can be explained by the fact that they strive to have leaders who match those they will integrate and interact with, i.e. political and economic elites.
Thematic study 3 investigated elite integration and interaction between civil society elites and members of other elite groups. Studies show extensive mobility from business to civil society and associated elite positions. Mobility between civil society and the public sector occurred primarily when they worked closely together and shared views on a societal problem. Elite research mainly explains elite integration with common social and professional backgrounds, yet we show the importance of common values and ideological orientation in explaining patterns of elite integration. The studies also show that patterns of elite mobility depend on regime affiliation. In countries with a corporatist regime type (e.g. Italy), elite integration takes place mainly within society's ideologically supporting structures (pillars), but in liberal regime types (e.g. the UK), mobility occurs regardless of sector affiliation. Irrespective of the regime type, barriers to elite mobility are linked to loss of economic capital, perceptions of sector differences, and role and identity conflicts. These are compensated by economic and political elites' perception of civil society as a better place for societal influence than their present position for power and influence.
Thematic study 4 examined the challengers of civil society elites. We have studied how national leaders are challenged and on what grounds and further developed the program's design to include transnational networks and conservative counter-movements. Unlike other research, we show that civil society elites primarily encounter challenges and challengers from within their organisation. Challenges mainly regard leadership and organisational competition, not ideology. In countries rifted by political polarisation (Italy and Poland), we find that (conservative) governments however strive to replace existing leadership and reshape civil society. The state becomes a means to create 'their' civil society elite. This shows that the term civil society elite is multifaceted, as leaders of conservative movements often give the impression of being a challenger or underdog despite having extensive financial and political resources. Theoretically, this develops the understanding of civil society leaders as "counter-elite" and shows the need for further research on how political and economic elites use positions within civil society for economic and political power.
Program contributions
The research program contributes to theorising about the mechanisms that drive elitisation within European civil societies, and based on our comparative studies, we developed a theoretical model. National power structures and civil society regimes set the framework for internal models of organising and distribution of valuable resources within and outside national civil societies. In countries with a lower degree of professionalisation and a pillaristic and corporatist structure, we find more significant elements of intra-organizational elite reproduction and integration between civil society elites and a political elite. In liberal regimes with high professionalisation, the elite is reproduced similarly to other elite groups and integrated primarily with an economic elite.
These three mechanisms of elitisation (reproduction, integration, and challenges) contribute to shaping a civil society elite with specific national characteristics regarding its composition. The term ‘interaction effects’ indicates that mechanisms are closely interconnected and that elites actively influence them. This is done by controlling access to important positions of power, e.g. linked to recruitment and who gets opportunities to advance. We see this as an essential contribution to comparative civil society research. Professionalisation, pillarisation and polarisation have been studied before, but as individual change processes without seeing them as drivers of elitisation. We show that they jointly contribute to elitisation and can be part of explaining the composition of elites in European civil societies.
A core contribution is also the theoretical deepening of the concept of the civil society elite. The concept should primarily be understood in terms of a paradoxical position of power. Civil society elite power is based partly on representation and working for the good of others, but elites are also embedded into contexts with opportunities for extensive influence and personal gain. Theoretically, the position of a civil society elite, and its associated resources and legitimation practices, can be explained as a mix of Michel's theory of the Iron Law of Oligarchy and Mill's theory of a Power Elite.
In summary, our studies show an extensive concentration of resources and power within national civil societies and, thus, the relevance of the term civil society elite to understand them. Therefore, studies of "civil society elites" should continue to be included in comparative studies of elites and studies of a power elite. Our research moreover shows the need for continued theory and method development around civil society's internal power structures and the importance of social stratification for participation and advancement, but investigations into how populism and declining social trust affect the composition of civil society's power strata, relationships they have with grassroots and members, as well as with other elite groups. Further deepening is necessary to understand the democratic role that civil society can have in times of declining trust and autocratisation.
Dissemination of results
Participants have presented the program's investigations and results on many occasions. It mainly concerned presentations for researchers, politicians, and representatives from civil society. Our research has also attracted interest from international umbrella organisations at the European and global levels and has been reported in the international press. The program has led to further research projects on elites, for example, with funding from Formas, the Swedish Research Council and the European Research Council, to name a few.