Understanding Islamic Legal Culture and Migration through Ethnographic and Archival Research: Guest Research Stay at the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul
This is an application for a five-month guest research stay (May 1-September 30, 2020) at the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul (SRII). The choice of the host institute is motivated by the applicant’s ongoing research projects which have direct relevance for the academic focus of the host institute (SRII) on Turkey, the Middle East, and Central Asia. The overall aim of the guest research stay at SRII is to establish a mutually beneficial collaboration between the applicant and staff of the SRII in the frame of two research objectives/sub-projects): (1) Islamic Legal Culture in Post-Soviet Central Asia, and (2) Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul. The intention is that this guest research stay will lead to knowledge transfer between the guest researcher and the host institute staff, as well as foster new academic collaboration between the sending university (Department of Sociology of Law, Lund University) and host institute (SRII) through joint research seminars, co-authored publications, and new research grant applications.
Final report
Scientific report
Purpose of the project and how it has developed during the project period.
The main purpose of the project was a five-month guest research stay at the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul (SRII). The choice of the SRII was motivated by Dr Rustamjon Urinboyev’s research focus on Turkey and Central Asia as well as his previous research stay at SRII (November 2017). During this research stay at SRII, Dr Urinboyev worked on two main objectives/sub-projects: (1) Islamic Legal Culture in Post-Soviet Central Asia, and (2) Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul.
A short description of how it was implemented.
Before describing how these two sub-projects were implemented, there is a need to reflect on the Covid-19 pandemic and how it affected the timing, duration and implementation of the research stay at SRII in Istanbul, Turkey. According to my original project plan, I was supposed to be on guest research stay at SRII in Istanbul during May 1-September 30, 2020. However, due to the sudden Covid-19 outbreak, all international travels were suspended by Lund University upon the travel recommendation of the Swedish Foreign Ministry. As a result, it was not possible for me to follow the original timeline of the guest research stay at SRII.
But it should be emphasized that the Covid-19 and travel restrictions made me rethink and further develop the project timeline, research activities and guest research stay at SRII in a more productive and feasible way. As the SRII, my host institution in Istanbul was closed to guest researchers during most of the pandemic time, it was not possible to use SRII’s library.
This meant that I had to divide my research stay in Istanbul into two periods. During period 1, I fully concentrated on Sub-Project 2 – Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul – which did not require archival and library research at the premises of SRII. During period 2, after the Covid-19 situation improved and the SRII fully opened its premises to guest researchers, I fully concentrated on library and archival research at the SRII library and worked with the Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasia collection. In accordance with the aforesaid circumstances, I describe the project implementation in two periods (which lasted 7 months):
Period 1 stays in Istanbul, Turkey and the implementation of the sub-project 2 - Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul:
July 31-August 11, 2020
November 27, 2020 – January 31, 2021
June 2, 2021 – August 19, 2021
The total duration of the stay during period 1: five months
Period 2 stay in Istanbul, Turkey and the implementation of the sub-project 1 - Islamic Legal Culture in Post-Soviet Central Asia
December 3, 2021 – February 9, 2022
The total duration of the stay during period 1: two months
The project’s three most important results and contributions to the international research front and a discussion about this.
Research Activities in the Frame of the Sub-Project 1 - Islamic Legal Culture in Post-Soviet Central Asia
The main aim of the sub-project 1 was to conduct archival research at the SRII library, particularly reviewing and reading the Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasia collection. Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul has a unique library which includes the Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasian collection – one of the main reasons why I would like to do archival research at SRII. The Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasia Collection consists of approximately 5,000 volumes including books on history, religion, literature and several other disciplines from the 19th and 20th centuries and publications on Central Eurasia, both from the region itself and from other parts of the world. The collection also includes travelogues, manuscripts, catalogues, photos and maps, linguistic treatises and dictionaries.
During the archival and library research, my main focus was to explore the role of Islamic institutions and Sharia law in Central Asia, both before the Russian occupation (until the late 19th century) and during the Russian empire and Soviet rule in Central Asia (from late 19th until 1991). In undertaking this task, I reviewed the documents, newspaper articles, letters, books, encyclopaedias and other sources which cover the role of Islam, administrative practices and Sharia courts and practices in pre-Soviet and Soviet periods in Central Asia. As a result of my two-month-long work at the SRII library, I was able to collect unique data on the role of Islamic institutions and Sharia law in Central Asia.
Sub-project 1: most important results and contribution to the international research front:
• In non-Western societies, such as Uzbekistan where the society is mostly based on Islamic legal culture, the existing and dominant Western-centric understandings of civil society have limited utility
• There is a need to consider the organically-developed, indigenous and culturally-informed civil society initiatives in non-Western societies
• Mahallas, as traditional Islamic community-based institutions in Central Asia, reflect the local, spontaneous and informally-organized forms of civil society
• There is to consider Islamic legal culture and its effects on state-society relations when analyzing the law and society and social change in non-Western societies like Uzbekistan.
The main scientific output of the sub-project 1 is an article on informal civil society, Islam and mahallas in Uzbekistan, published by the prestigious area studies journal – Central Asian Survey (Q1 in Scopus):
Urinboyev, R. and Eraliev, S (2022). The Political Economy of Non-Western Migration Regimes: Central Asian Migrant Workers in Russia and Turkey. Cham: Palgrave, International Political Economy series. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99256-9
Research Activities in the Frame of the Sub-Project 2 - Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul.
The main aim of sub-project 2 was to conduct research on migrant undocumented, informality and the migrant agency in Istanbul, Turkey. As a case study group, the focus was placed on Central Asian labour migrants who constitute one of the largest migrant worker communities in Turkey. This aim was accomplished by conducting an intensive ethnographic study in Istanbul via observations, informal interviews, focus groups and semi-structured interviews. Due to my previous fieldwork experience, contacts and language skills (Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Russian and Turkish), I was able to interview and observe the daily life of more than 120 Central Asian labour migrants in Istanbul. Interviews and observations were carried out at construction sites, bazaars, dachas (cottages), farms, dormitories, shared apartments, cafes, and on the streets of Istanbul where Central Asian migrants work, live and socialize. Daily observations and informal and semi-structured interviews generated rich data about how migrants navigate the challenges and organize their daily working life in Istanbul.
Another equally important aim of sub-project 2 was to conduct institutional and legal context analysis, focusing on Turkish immigration laws, policies, institutions and actors. In undertaking this task, I conducted 15 in-depth elite and expert interviews with Turkish migration lawyers, migration experts, diaspora leaders, labour unions and human rights activists and academics working on migration issues. My academic contacts at Istanbul’s Marmara University facilitated my data collection efforts.
Sub-project 2: most important results and contribution to the international research front:
The sub-project 2 results will contribute new theoretical and comparative insights on migrant agency, undocumentedness and informality in non-Western, non-democratic migration regimes. The project is conceived as a critical reflection on the contemporary migration regime scholarship, and, more generally, on comparative migration studies, which primarily focus on migrants’ experiences and immigration policies in the context of liberal democracies in North America and Western Europe. Addressing this gap is particularly important when considering the fact that many new migration hubs are nondemocratic, which in turn requires us to revise or produce new frameworks of analysis beyond existing and dominant Western-centric migration regime typologies. In the project I took up the case study of Central Asian migrants in Russia and Turkey—two archetypal non-Western, nondemocratic regimes and key migration hotspots worldwide—and investigated how migration governance outcomes are shaped by the informal power geometries and extralegal processes in physical and digital landscapes in which migrant workers, employers, middlemen, landlords, street world actors and street-level bureaucrats negotiate the contemporary migration system. The project presents new empirical material, a comparative perspective and methodological tools for studying migrants’ experiences and migration governance processes in non-Western migration regimes.
The main scientific output of the sub-project 1 is a book/monograph on Central Asian migrant workers in Russia and Turkey, published by the Palgrave Political Economy series:
Urinboyev, R. and Eraliev, S (2022). The Political Economy of Non-Western Migration Regimes: Central Asian Migrant Workers in Russia and Turkey. Cham: Palgrave, International Political Economy series. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99256-9
This paper, also resulting from the sub-project 2, will be published as a book chapter:
Urinboyev, R. and Eraliev, S. (accepted, forthcoming 2022). Informality and Uzbek Migrant Networks in Turkey and Russia. In J. Fe´aux de la Croix and M. Reeves, eds. The Central Asian World. Routledge, Anthropology series
New research questions generated through the project
The research stays at SRII generated numerous research questions that will be later developed into new research projects. One key research outcome is that I am planning to develop a new research pro0ject on informal civil society initiatives in non-Western societies, particularly focusing on the communal concept of civil society.
Another key research question that emerged in the course of the project is to investigate the political economy of migrant smuggling in Turkey, a key transit for many migrants who look to enter the European Union. I am planning to develop a new research project exploring this question.
The project’s international dimensions, such as contacts and material.
This guest research stay was mutually beneficial for both Dr Urinboyev, his home institution Lund University’s Department of Sociology of Law and the host institute SRII.
First, the research stay fostered and consolidated the previous ties of Dr Urinboyev and SRII through the two sub-research projects. Dr Urinboyev, while based at SRII, conducted archival research and ethnographic fieldwork, which contributed to SRII’s research agenda towards the themes of migration, Central Asia and Islam as well as maximised the impact of RJ funding. Dr Urinboyev was able to conduct both archival research and ethnographic fieldwork in Istanbul’s migrant labour market.
Second, the research stay facilitated a transfer of knowledge and skills between Dr Urinboyev and the host institute staff and affiliated researchers through research seminars, workshops, daily informal conversations and possibly co-authored publications.
Third, the research stay also enabled Dr Urinboyev to establish closer academic ties with the Turkish academic community, which will lead to collaboration and joint applications for Swedish, Turkish and EU research grants.
How the project team has disseminated the results to other researchers and groups outside the scientific community and discussed and explain how collaboration has taken place.
I have used different venues to communicate the project results to different target audiences.
First of all, the project results were presented during the research seminar organized by the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul on December 8, 2021. The seminar participants included the SRII staff, guest researchers based at SRII, Turkish academic and policy communities as well as the representatives of the French Institute for Turkish Studies. Link to the seminar: https://www.srii.org/Documents/Docs/d839fdd99a604600a5c17b50edd88af4.pdf
In addition to the SRII in-house seminar, I presented the project results at the following venues:
Invited lectures and presentations
• Invited lecture “Central Asian Migrant Workers in Russia and Turkey”, online seminar series organized by the University of Western England (Bristol), Department of Economics, April 28, 2022.
• Invited lecture “Migration, Shadow Economy and the Street World in Russia and Turkey”, online seminar series "Migration research" organized by the National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia, April 29, 2021.
• Invited presentation “Covid-19 and its impact on Central Asian migrants in Russia and Turkey”, during the webinar “Informality and COVID-19 in Eurasia: The Sudden Loss of a Social Buffer”, organized by OECD Eurasia, March 11, 2021.
• Invited presentation “Uzbek migrant workers in Russia and Turkey: Shadow economy, precarious livelihoods and parallel legal orders”, during the webinar “External Labour Migration: Opportunities and Challenges for Uzbekistan”, organized by the German Institute for International and Security Affairs, March 10, 2021.
• Invited presentation “Central Asian Muslim Prisoners in Russian Penal Institutions during the Covid-19 times”, during the webinar “COVID-19 Pandemic and Central Asian Migrants in Russia”, organized by the Central Asia Programme, Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies, The George Washington University, July 16, 2020.
Presentation at international conferences and workshops
• 10th World Congress of the International Council for Central and East European Studies, an online event organized by the Concordia University, Canada, August 3-8, 2021. Paper presented: Locked Up in Russia: Social Relationships of Migrant Workers in Correctional Colonies in Post-Soviet Russia.
• The ASN 2021 World Convention Panel: The UN Global Compacts: Lessons from Eastern Europe and Central Asia, an online event organized by the Harriman Institute, Columbia University, May 3-8, 2021. Paper presented: Migrant workers in Russia.
• International workshop “Contemporary issues of migration management in Uzbekistan”, organized by the Academy of the General Prosecutor’s Office of Uzbekistan, December 18, 2020. Paper presented: Migration, Shadow Economy and Legal Pluralism.
I was also interviewed by BBC Uzbek Service and shared my research findings on Central Asian migrants’ experiences in Turkey, which can be found here:
https://www.bbc.com/uzbek/uzbekistan-53057565
Purpose of the project and how it has developed during the project period.
The main purpose of the project was a five-month guest research stay at the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul (SRII). The choice of the SRII was motivated by Dr Rustamjon Urinboyev’s research focus on Turkey and Central Asia as well as his previous research stay at SRII (November 2017). During this research stay at SRII, Dr Urinboyev worked on two main objectives/sub-projects: (1) Islamic Legal Culture in Post-Soviet Central Asia, and (2) Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul.
A short description of how it was implemented.
Before describing how these two sub-projects were implemented, there is a need to reflect on the Covid-19 pandemic and how it affected the timing, duration and implementation of the research stay at SRII in Istanbul, Turkey. According to my original project plan, I was supposed to be on guest research stay at SRII in Istanbul during May 1-September 30, 2020. However, due to the sudden Covid-19 outbreak, all international travels were suspended by Lund University upon the travel recommendation of the Swedish Foreign Ministry. As a result, it was not possible for me to follow the original timeline of the guest research stay at SRII.
But it should be emphasized that the Covid-19 and travel restrictions made me rethink and further develop the project timeline, research activities and guest research stay at SRII in a more productive and feasible way. As the SRII, my host institution in Istanbul was closed to guest researchers during most of the pandemic time, it was not possible to use SRII’s library.
This meant that I had to divide my research stay in Istanbul into two periods. During period 1, I fully concentrated on Sub-Project 2 – Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul – which did not require archival and library research at the premises of SRII. During period 2, after the Covid-19 situation improved and the SRII fully opened its premises to guest researchers, I fully concentrated on library and archival research at the SRII library and worked with the Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasia collection. In accordance with the aforesaid circumstances, I describe the project implementation in two periods (which lasted 7 months):
Period 1 stays in Istanbul, Turkey and the implementation of the sub-project 2 - Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul:
July 31-August 11, 2020
November 27, 2020 – January 31, 2021
June 2, 2021 – August 19, 2021
The total duration of the stay during period 1: five months
Period 2 stay in Istanbul, Turkey and the implementation of the sub-project 1 - Islamic Legal Culture in Post-Soviet Central Asia
December 3, 2021 – February 9, 2022
The total duration of the stay during period 1: two months
The project’s three most important results and contributions to the international research front and a discussion about this.
Research Activities in the Frame of the Sub-Project 1 - Islamic Legal Culture in Post-Soviet Central Asia
The main aim of the sub-project 1 was to conduct archival research at the SRII library, particularly reviewing and reading the Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasia collection. Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul has a unique library which includes the Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasian collection – one of the main reasons why I would like to do archival research at SRII. The Gunnar Jarring Central Eurasia Collection consists of approximately 5,000 volumes including books on history, religion, literature and several other disciplines from the 19th and 20th centuries and publications on Central Eurasia, both from the region itself and from other parts of the world. The collection also includes travelogues, manuscripts, catalogues, photos and maps, linguistic treatises and dictionaries.
During the archival and library research, my main focus was to explore the role of Islamic institutions and Sharia law in Central Asia, both before the Russian occupation (until the late 19th century) and during the Russian empire and Soviet rule in Central Asia (from late 19th until 1991). In undertaking this task, I reviewed the documents, newspaper articles, letters, books, encyclopaedias and other sources which cover the role of Islam, administrative practices and Sharia courts and practices in pre-Soviet and Soviet periods in Central Asia. As a result of my two-month-long work at the SRII library, I was able to collect unique data on the role of Islamic institutions and Sharia law in Central Asia.
Sub-project 1: most important results and contribution to the international research front:
• In non-Western societies, such as Uzbekistan where the society is mostly based on Islamic legal culture, the existing and dominant Western-centric understandings of civil society have limited utility
• There is a need to consider the organically-developed, indigenous and culturally-informed civil society initiatives in non-Western societies
• Mahallas, as traditional Islamic community-based institutions in Central Asia, reflect the local, spontaneous and informally-organized forms of civil society
• There is to consider Islamic legal culture and its effects on state-society relations when analyzing the law and society and social change in non-Western societies like Uzbekistan.
The main scientific output of the sub-project 1 is an article on informal civil society, Islam and mahallas in Uzbekistan, published by the prestigious area studies journal – Central Asian Survey (Q1 in Scopus):
Urinboyev, R. and Eraliev, S (2022). The Political Economy of Non-Western Migration Regimes: Central Asian Migrant Workers in Russia and Turkey. Cham: Palgrave, International Political Economy series. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99256-9
Research Activities in the Frame of the Sub-Project 2 - Migration, Shadow Economy and Parallel Legal Orders in Istanbul.
The main aim of sub-project 2 was to conduct research on migrant undocumented, informality and the migrant agency in Istanbul, Turkey. As a case study group, the focus was placed on Central Asian labour migrants who constitute one of the largest migrant worker communities in Turkey. This aim was accomplished by conducting an intensive ethnographic study in Istanbul via observations, informal interviews, focus groups and semi-structured interviews. Due to my previous fieldwork experience, contacts and language skills (Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Turkmen, Russian and Turkish), I was able to interview and observe the daily life of more than 120 Central Asian labour migrants in Istanbul. Interviews and observations were carried out at construction sites, bazaars, dachas (cottages), farms, dormitories, shared apartments, cafes, and on the streets of Istanbul where Central Asian migrants work, live and socialize. Daily observations and informal and semi-structured interviews generated rich data about how migrants navigate the challenges and organize their daily working life in Istanbul.
Another equally important aim of sub-project 2 was to conduct institutional and legal context analysis, focusing on Turkish immigration laws, policies, institutions and actors. In undertaking this task, I conducted 15 in-depth elite and expert interviews with Turkish migration lawyers, migration experts, diaspora leaders, labour unions and human rights activists and academics working on migration issues. My academic contacts at Istanbul’s Marmara University facilitated my data collection efforts.
Sub-project 2: most important results and contribution to the international research front:
The sub-project 2 results will contribute new theoretical and comparative insights on migrant agency, undocumentedness and informality in non-Western, non-democratic migration regimes. The project is conceived as a critical reflection on the contemporary migration regime scholarship, and, more generally, on comparative migration studies, which primarily focus on migrants’ experiences and immigration policies in the context of liberal democracies in North America and Western Europe. Addressing this gap is particularly important when considering the fact that many new migration hubs are nondemocratic, which in turn requires us to revise or produce new frameworks of analysis beyond existing and dominant Western-centric migration regime typologies. In the project I took up the case study of Central Asian migrants in Russia and Turkey—two archetypal non-Western, nondemocratic regimes and key migration hotspots worldwide—and investigated how migration governance outcomes are shaped by the informal power geometries and extralegal processes in physical and digital landscapes in which migrant workers, employers, middlemen, landlords, street world actors and street-level bureaucrats negotiate the contemporary migration system. The project presents new empirical material, a comparative perspective and methodological tools for studying migrants’ experiences and migration governance processes in non-Western migration regimes.
The main scientific output of the sub-project 1 is a book/monograph on Central Asian migrant workers in Russia and Turkey, published by the Palgrave Political Economy series:
Urinboyev, R. and Eraliev, S (2022). The Political Economy of Non-Western Migration Regimes: Central Asian Migrant Workers in Russia and Turkey. Cham: Palgrave, International Political Economy series. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99256-9
This paper, also resulting from the sub-project 2, will be published as a book chapter:
Urinboyev, R. and Eraliev, S. (accepted, forthcoming 2022). Informality and Uzbek Migrant Networks in Turkey and Russia. In J. Fe´aux de la Croix and M. Reeves, eds. The Central Asian World. Routledge, Anthropology series
New research questions generated through the project
The research stays at SRII generated numerous research questions that will be later developed into new research projects. One key research outcome is that I am planning to develop a new research pro0ject on informal civil society initiatives in non-Western societies, particularly focusing on the communal concept of civil society.
Another key research question that emerged in the course of the project is to investigate the political economy of migrant smuggling in Turkey, a key transit for many migrants who look to enter the European Union. I am planning to develop a new research project exploring this question.
The project’s international dimensions, such as contacts and material.
This guest research stay was mutually beneficial for both Dr Urinboyev, his home institution Lund University’s Department of Sociology of Law and the host institute SRII.
First, the research stay fostered and consolidated the previous ties of Dr Urinboyev and SRII through the two sub-research projects. Dr Urinboyev, while based at SRII, conducted archival research and ethnographic fieldwork, which contributed to SRII’s research agenda towards the themes of migration, Central Asia and Islam as well as maximised the impact of RJ funding. Dr Urinboyev was able to conduct both archival research and ethnographic fieldwork in Istanbul’s migrant labour market.
Second, the research stay facilitated a transfer of knowledge and skills between Dr Urinboyev and the host institute staff and affiliated researchers through research seminars, workshops, daily informal conversations and possibly co-authored publications.
Third, the research stay also enabled Dr Urinboyev to establish closer academic ties with the Turkish academic community, which will lead to collaboration and joint applications for Swedish, Turkish and EU research grants.
How the project team has disseminated the results to other researchers and groups outside the scientific community and discussed and explain how collaboration has taken place.
I have used different venues to communicate the project results to different target audiences.
First of all, the project results were presented during the research seminar organized by the Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul on December 8, 2021. The seminar participants included the SRII staff, guest researchers based at SRII, Turkish academic and policy communities as well as the representatives of the French Institute for Turkish Studies. Link to the seminar: https://www.srii.org/Documents/Docs/d839fdd99a604600a5c17b50edd88af4.pdf
In addition to the SRII in-house seminar, I presented the project results at the following venues:
Invited lectures and presentations
• Invited lecture “Central Asian Migrant Workers in Russia and Turkey”, online seminar series organized by the University of Western England (Bristol), Department of Economics, April 28, 2022.
• Invited lecture “Migration, Shadow Economy and the Street World in Russia and Turkey”, online seminar series "Migration research" organized by the National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia, April 29, 2021.
• Invited presentation “Covid-19 and its impact on Central Asian migrants in Russia and Turkey”, during the webinar “Informality and COVID-19 in Eurasia: The Sudden Loss of a Social Buffer”, organized by OECD Eurasia, March 11, 2021.
• Invited presentation “Uzbek migrant workers in Russia and Turkey: Shadow economy, precarious livelihoods and parallel legal orders”, during the webinar “External Labour Migration: Opportunities and Challenges for Uzbekistan”, organized by the German Institute for International and Security Affairs, March 10, 2021.
• Invited presentation “Central Asian Muslim Prisoners in Russian Penal Institutions during the Covid-19 times”, during the webinar “COVID-19 Pandemic and Central Asian Migrants in Russia”, organized by the Central Asia Programme, Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies, The George Washington University, July 16, 2020.
Presentation at international conferences and workshops
• 10th World Congress of the International Council for Central and East European Studies, an online event organized by the Concordia University, Canada, August 3-8, 2021. Paper presented: Locked Up in Russia: Social Relationships of Migrant Workers in Correctional Colonies in Post-Soviet Russia.
• The ASN 2021 World Convention Panel: The UN Global Compacts: Lessons from Eastern Europe and Central Asia, an online event organized by the Harriman Institute, Columbia University, May 3-8, 2021. Paper presented: Migrant workers in Russia.
• International workshop “Contemporary issues of migration management in Uzbekistan”, organized by the Academy of the General Prosecutor’s Office of Uzbekistan, December 18, 2020. Paper presented: Migration, Shadow Economy and Legal Pluralism.
I was also interviewed by BBC Uzbek Service and shared my research findings on Central Asian migrants’ experiences in Turkey, which can be found here:
https://www.bbc.com/uzbek/uzbekistan-53057565