Twilight of the Gods. On the Disintegration and Demise of Old Norse Religion
It is a common opinion in research that the Scandinavians officially changed religion during the second half of the Viking Age (c. 900-1050/1100 AD). During this period the Old Norse religion was replaced by Christianity. When describing this religious change in historiographic accounts the concept “Christianization” is often applied, an expression indicating the success and victory of the winning part of this meeting. In most of these treatments focus is placed on the outcome of the conversion, i.e. a description of the early medieval Christianity, while processes in the demising religion are less observed. The intention of this project is to concentrate on the Old Norse religion during the transition and describe the processes behind its disappearance. First of all a critical assessment of previous research will be conducted. Focus will be placed on how these treatments explain the decline of the Old Norse religion. Then the questions how and especially why it disintegrated will be discussed. A focal point will be placed on the rulers in this process and their role in the winding up of the native tradition that previously formed their lives. Finally, the resistance and revolts against Christianity will be investigated, where the various expressions appearing in the sources will be compared. The intention here is to explain these variations from a contextual point of view. There is currently a research gap related to these questions.
Final report
It is a common opinion among scholars that Christianity replaced the Norse religion on an official level in Scandinavia c. 950–1100 CE. When describing this transition in recent research, the term “Christianization” is often applied. This historiography discusses mostly the outcome of the encounter, that is, the early Medieval Christianity and the new Christian society. The intentions of the present study have been to put focus on the Old Norse religion during this period of change and to analyze the processes behind its extinction. There is a lack of knowledge in religious studies with regard to investigating how and why religious traditions disappear in general. The present study has intended to give a systematic presentation from the study of Norse religion with a specific focus on the role of native rulers when dismantling the old religion and society. In addition, the pagan chieftains’ defense of this old order will be investigated.
There is a given synthesis among all the results of this survey, namely the recurring pattern from the first Christian kings’ efforts to dismantle the old faith, via the resistance of the pagans and its collapse, to the establishment of Christian kingdoms in Scandinavia. This process took place at different times in different places. In Denmark it started with Haraldr Klakk’s baptism in 826 and ended up at Haraldr Gormsson’s conversion around 963. The dismantling process in Norway started with King Hákon góði’s attempts around the 930s and was terminated at the assembly at Mostar 1022 when St Óláfr and Grímkell founded the Christian law. In Sweden the disintegration of the indigenous religion had a certain temporal delay compared to Denmark and Norway. It started quite early with King Óláfr Eiríksson’s conversion 995 but ended first with King Ingi’s campaign against the pagans’ customs around 1100. The downfall of the old religion in Iceland seems to have been somewhat different compared to these kingdoms. On this island the population was ruled by egalitarian chieftains. The dismantling of the old religion there seems to have taken place in a relatively peaceful and smooth manner after a þing-decision 999/1000.
The question why the native Scandinavian rulers abandoned their traditional religion is complex. Christianity brought many types of benefits for rulers and chieftains, for example new trade relations, the development of social-political networks, and attachments to Christian elite groups in Continental Europe and the British Isles. Hence, the social and political dimensions of conversion were very crucial for them, beside the religious reasons.
The early Christian kings played a most active role when winding up the indigenous tradition that previously formed their lives. They concentrated their efforts on the cultic aspects of the indigenous religion that were more under their control and at the same time crucial for the modus operandi of the Old Norse religion. The early Christian kings were pragmatists. Since they could not affect the traditional worldview and prevent people from telling the mythical narratives about the old gods they turned to such aims that they were able to achieve. It was easier to control what people did than what they thought. Initially, when their political power was no greater than that of the local chieftains, they adapted their strategies to what was in their power to do, such as abandoning their own traditional roles in sacrificial cult, and in that way disrupt the old liturgical order. When the Christian rulers’ political position became more powerful, they could also persuade, or even force the local chieftains, who organized the old cultic activities at the local pagan sanctuaries, to abandon their roles. In addition, they destroyed these sanctuaries including the idols and ritual objects. When the Christians kings together with the clergy had an even stronger position of power and support through an efficient administration, they prohibited animal sacrifices and other traditional customs by means of written laws. At this point, Christian power could also affect the world of ideas by preaching the Christian message, demonizing the old gods or neutralizing them by means of euhemerism.
The pagans’ opposition against the new Christian power in Sweden and Norway resembled each other. In both countries it was related to groups appearing in geographic areas which also included important pagan sanctuaries with a regional or even over-regional significance. In Sweden the resistance groups were strong in the Lake Mälaren area, where the famous sanctuary Uppsala was located, while the strongest resistance of the pagans in Norway appeared in Trøndelag, where the significant cult places of Lade and Mære were situated. The pagan actors, who protected and maintained the traditional cult in these areas, actually defended the old society and life-style, where power was related to the local and regional assemblies, that is, the old order. The pagan kings were considered as primi inter pares and their power was restricted by the assemblies. The Christian kings opposed this system and advocated a more centralized state including a relation with the papal Church and its ecclesiastic organization. The resistance among pagans was also related to their fear that the new religion could destroy the old cult community, and thereby also traditional customs as well as various activities related to social life. The heathen peasants wanted the king to sacrifice on their behalf at the great yearly feasts for prosperity and peace in a traditionally way. The pagan king was considered as a necessary ritual link between the worlds of humans and gods.
The reason why these similarities occur is connected to social structures in the Late Iron Age societies of both Sweden and Norway. None of them formed a political unit in the early Viking Age. Rather, they were ruled by many local rulers and lacked a central state. In these tribe societies, power was divided between many hands. Local chieftains could be quite powerful and independent from other rulers. Only occasionally, these chieftains had High-Kings ruling over them in a kind of tribe federation. The deep roots of the social-political structures in Sweden and Norway provided fertile ground for regional contradictions regarding common decisions. Some parts of these countries were in a process of developing a more central state under Christian royal power, while other parts strived to maintain the traditional society and local independence, including the old religion and order.
The pagans’ resistance against Christians in Iceland was not restricted to specific geographic areas or to over-regional sanctuaries as in Norway and Sweden. Those who supported the pagan party had their farms in all areas of Iceland. The reason why they wanted to preserve the Old Norse religion is probably related to the fear that conversion would imply wider social-political changes, such as transformations in community life, feasting calendar, ownership, labor and cultivation customs. Perhaps the pagan chieftains in Iceland also feared that power would be transferred to the Norwegian king and that the local independence of the chieftains would be discontinued.
There are several reasons why the pagan resistance finally collapsed in Scandinavian. As been stated by many scholars in the previous research, Christian religion and culture slowly seeped into and gradually influenced the societies that existed in Scandinavia for quite an extensive period. Certain decisive events, however, caused the pagans’ resistance to finally give way for Christianity in each country. In Iceland, King Óláfr Tryggvason played a crucial role for the official conversion, as he put pressure on some Icelandic chieftains, not least by imprison their sons in Norway. It is also concluded, that certain social-political structures in Iceland were crucial for the extinction of the official pagan religion there. Power was concentrated to the General Assembly (Alþingi), where all chieftains’ voices counted. When the conversion decision was taken at Alþingi 999/1000 it was accepted by most chieftains, since it followed the traditional decision-making process. Most likely this fact was the basic cause for a peaceful process in Iceland. The increasing military power of the Christian kings in Denmark, Norway and Sweden became absolutely decisive for the final collapse of paganism there.
These results are under publication by the publisher de Gruyter (Berlin/New York) in a monograph titled The Demise of Norse Religion: Dismantling and Defending the Old Order in Viking Age Scandinavia. It comprises approximately 350 pages. What the project resulted in apart from the publication and how the results have been disseminated as well as the different collaborations which have been done during the Sabbatical are presented below:
Research stay: University of Bergen (UiB) (August-December 2022) and Aarhus University (AU) (February-March 2023). The collaboration groups at these universities included Michael Stausberg and Eldar Heide at UiB, and Jens Peter Schjødt, Simon Nygaard and Pernille Hermann at AU. In these groups we had informal discussions about the project and other relevant research questions, as well as reflections concerning further research collaborations.
Organization of an international workshop: “The Demise of Norse Religion”, ERG, Stockholm University, September 22, 2022
Scholarly presentations of the project: The department of religious studies, UiB, September 6 2022; Colloque de la SGR-SSSR 2022 in Lausanne, October 14; Seminar, AU, March 1, 2023; Isländska sällskapet’s annual meeting, Uppsala, in May 24, 2023.
Presentations for wider audience: SVT “Historien om Sverige” (expert commentator); Eldar Heide’s podcast, October 2022; Vetenskapsradion Historia, February 7, 2023; Religionsvetenskapliga sällskapet, Sigtuna in May 14, 2023.
There is a given synthesis among all the results of this survey, namely the recurring pattern from the first Christian kings’ efforts to dismantle the old faith, via the resistance of the pagans and its collapse, to the establishment of Christian kingdoms in Scandinavia. This process took place at different times in different places. In Denmark it started with Haraldr Klakk’s baptism in 826 and ended up at Haraldr Gormsson’s conversion around 963. The dismantling process in Norway started with King Hákon góði’s attempts around the 930s and was terminated at the assembly at Mostar 1022 when St Óláfr and Grímkell founded the Christian law. In Sweden the disintegration of the indigenous religion had a certain temporal delay compared to Denmark and Norway. It started quite early with King Óláfr Eiríksson’s conversion 995 but ended first with King Ingi’s campaign against the pagans’ customs around 1100. The downfall of the old religion in Iceland seems to have been somewhat different compared to these kingdoms. On this island the population was ruled by egalitarian chieftains. The dismantling of the old religion there seems to have taken place in a relatively peaceful and smooth manner after a þing-decision 999/1000.
The question why the native Scandinavian rulers abandoned their traditional religion is complex. Christianity brought many types of benefits for rulers and chieftains, for example new trade relations, the development of social-political networks, and attachments to Christian elite groups in Continental Europe and the British Isles. Hence, the social and political dimensions of conversion were very crucial for them, beside the religious reasons.
The early Christian kings played a most active role when winding up the indigenous tradition that previously formed their lives. They concentrated their efforts on the cultic aspects of the indigenous religion that were more under their control and at the same time crucial for the modus operandi of the Old Norse religion. The early Christian kings were pragmatists. Since they could not affect the traditional worldview and prevent people from telling the mythical narratives about the old gods they turned to such aims that they were able to achieve. It was easier to control what people did than what they thought. Initially, when their political power was no greater than that of the local chieftains, they adapted their strategies to what was in their power to do, such as abandoning their own traditional roles in sacrificial cult, and in that way disrupt the old liturgical order. When the Christian rulers’ political position became more powerful, they could also persuade, or even force the local chieftains, who organized the old cultic activities at the local pagan sanctuaries, to abandon their roles. In addition, they destroyed these sanctuaries including the idols and ritual objects. When the Christians kings together with the clergy had an even stronger position of power and support through an efficient administration, they prohibited animal sacrifices and other traditional customs by means of written laws. At this point, Christian power could also affect the world of ideas by preaching the Christian message, demonizing the old gods or neutralizing them by means of euhemerism.
The pagans’ opposition against the new Christian power in Sweden and Norway resembled each other. In both countries it was related to groups appearing in geographic areas which also included important pagan sanctuaries with a regional or even over-regional significance. In Sweden the resistance groups were strong in the Lake Mälaren area, where the famous sanctuary Uppsala was located, while the strongest resistance of the pagans in Norway appeared in Trøndelag, where the significant cult places of Lade and Mære were situated. The pagan actors, who protected and maintained the traditional cult in these areas, actually defended the old society and life-style, where power was related to the local and regional assemblies, that is, the old order. The pagan kings were considered as primi inter pares and their power was restricted by the assemblies. The Christian kings opposed this system and advocated a more centralized state including a relation with the papal Church and its ecclesiastic organization. The resistance among pagans was also related to their fear that the new religion could destroy the old cult community, and thereby also traditional customs as well as various activities related to social life. The heathen peasants wanted the king to sacrifice on their behalf at the great yearly feasts for prosperity and peace in a traditionally way. The pagan king was considered as a necessary ritual link between the worlds of humans and gods.
The reason why these similarities occur is connected to social structures in the Late Iron Age societies of both Sweden and Norway. None of them formed a political unit in the early Viking Age. Rather, they were ruled by many local rulers and lacked a central state. In these tribe societies, power was divided between many hands. Local chieftains could be quite powerful and independent from other rulers. Only occasionally, these chieftains had High-Kings ruling over them in a kind of tribe federation. The deep roots of the social-political structures in Sweden and Norway provided fertile ground for regional contradictions regarding common decisions. Some parts of these countries were in a process of developing a more central state under Christian royal power, while other parts strived to maintain the traditional society and local independence, including the old religion and order.
The pagans’ resistance against Christians in Iceland was not restricted to specific geographic areas or to over-regional sanctuaries as in Norway and Sweden. Those who supported the pagan party had their farms in all areas of Iceland. The reason why they wanted to preserve the Old Norse religion is probably related to the fear that conversion would imply wider social-political changes, such as transformations in community life, feasting calendar, ownership, labor and cultivation customs. Perhaps the pagan chieftains in Iceland also feared that power would be transferred to the Norwegian king and that the local independence of the chieftains would be discontinued.
There are several reasons why the pagan resistance finally collapsed in Scandinavian. As been stated by many scholars in the previous research, Christian religion and culture slowly seeped into and gradually influenced the societies that existed in Scandinavia for quite an extensive period. Certain decisive events, however, caused the pagans’ resistance to finally give way for Christianity in each country. In Iceland, King Óláfr Tryggvason played a crucial role for the official conversion, as he put pressure on some Icelandic chieftains, not least by imprison their sons in Norway. It is also concluded, that certain social-political structures in Iceland were crucial for the extinction of the official pagan religion there. Power was concentrated to the General Assembly (Alþingi), where all chieftains’ voices counted. When the conversion decision was taken at Alþingi 999/1000 it was accepted by most chieftains, since it followed the traditional decision-making process. Most likely this fact was the basic cause for a peaceful process in Iceland. The increasing military power of the Christian kings in Denmark, Norway and Sweden became absolutely decisive for the final collapse of paganism there.
These results are under publication by the publisher de Gruyter (Berlin/New York) in a monograph titled The Demise of Norse Religion: Dismantling and Defending the Old Order in Viking Age Scandinavia. It comprises approximately 350 pages. What the project resulted in apart from the publication and how the results have been disseminated as well as the different collaborations which have been done during the Sabbatical are presented below:
Research stay: University of Bergen (UiB) (August-December 2022) and Aarhus University (AU) (February-March 2023). The collaboration groups at these universities included Michael Stausberg and Eldar Heide at UiB, and Jens Peter Schjødt, Simon Nygaard and Pernille Hermann at AU. In these groups we had informal discussions about the project and other relevant research questions, as well as reflections concerning further research collaborations.
Organization of an international workshop: “The Demise of Norse Religion”, ERG, Stockholm University, September 22, 2022
Scholarly presentations of the project: The department of religious studies, UiB, September 6 2022; Colloque de la SGR-SSSR 2022 in Lausanne, October 14; Seminar, AU, March 1, 2023; Isländska sällskapet’s annual meeting, Uppsala, in May 24, 2023.
Presentations for wider audience: SVT “Historien om Sverige” (expert commentator); Eldar Heide’s podcast, October 2022; Vetenskapsradion Historia, February 7, 2023; Religionsvetenskapliga sällskapet, Sigtuna in May 14, 2023.